PRINCIPLES  AND 
PROCESSES  0/EDUCATION 


BY 
W.  H.  BRUCE,  A.  M.,  PH.  D., 

PRESIDENT  NORTH  TEXAS  STATE  NORMAL  COLLEGE 


C.  A.  BRYANT  COMPANY 
1916 


Copyright  1916 

by 
C.  A.  BRYANT 


TO 
THE  TWENTY  THOUSAND  TEACHERS  OF  TEXAS 

So  Many  of  Whom  Are  My  Personal  Friends, 

And  Whose  Esteem  I  so  Highly  Prize, 

This  Volume  Is  Dedicated 

With  the  Professional  Regard  and  Personal  Affection 
of  the  Author. 


3  5  7  o  2  3 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OP  EDUCATION       .       .       .       .3 

The  Young  of  Lower  Orders  of  Animals.  Life 
Cycles.  Parental  Care.  Human  Infancy.  Period 
of  Infancy  Lengthened.  Heredity,  Family  Traits, 
Acquired  Characteristics.  Congenital  Traits  Trans- 
mitted. Talents  Run  in  Families.  Man  Can  be 
Educated.  Man  Must  be  Educated.  Period  of  Plas- 
ticity. Youth  the  Time  for  Habit  Formation.  Im- 
portance of  Early  Training. 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  AIMS  OP  EDUCATION 14 

Definition  of  Education.  Main  Aim  of  Education. 
Spartan,  Athenian,  and  Roman  Ideals.  Modern 
Ideals.  Development  and  Adjustment  Aim.  Knowl- 
edge Aim.  Culture  Aim.  Service  Aim.  Selfish 
Conception  of  Education. 

/^  A'yr ;.  ; 

CHAPTER  III 

EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES     .       .       .       *       .       .       .23 

Environment.  Experience.  The  Home.  The 
School.  The  Vocation.  The  State.  Tlve  Church. 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SCHOOL «      .       .       .    31 

The  School  the  Outgrowth  of  Complexity  of  So- 
ciety. Ancient  Views  of  Education.  Modern  Views 
of  Education.  Standards. 

VII 


j 


VIH  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OP  THE  SCHOOL      .  .    36 

The  School  Site.  The  Buildings.  The  Grounds. 
Lighting.  Heating.  Ventilation.  Furniture. 

CHAPTER  VI 

'HE  FUNCTIONS  OP  THE  SCHOOL  .    44 

Specific  Aims  of  Education.  Acquisition  of 
Knowledge.  Power.  Skill.  Character.  Continuous 
Education.  Social  Center  Movement.  Extension 
Work  of  Universities. 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  COURSE  OP  STUDY       .       /      v.     .       .       .       .53 

Definite  Course  for  Each  School.  Doctrine  of 
Formal  Discipline.  Individual  Aptitudes.  Types  of 
Memory.  College  Entrance  Requirements.  Two 
Standards  Attempted  by  High  Schools.  Suggested 
Method  for  the  Correlation  of  Schools.  The  Efficient 
Man.  Liberal  and  Vocational  Education.  The  Elec- 
tive System.  Wide  Range  of  Electives  Impossible. 
Groups  of  Studies  Practicable. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  AND  REWARDS  OP  THE 

TEACHER 72 

Character  Essential.  Society  Demands  High 
Character  of  the  Teacher.  Scholarship.  Growth. 
Opportunities  for  Growth.  Means  of  Growth.  Meth- 
ods of  Growth.  Personality  of  the  Teacher.  Atti- 
tude of  the  Teacher.  Types  of  Teachers.  Rewards 
of  the  Teacher. 

CHAPTER  IX 

SENSORY  EDUCATION 96 

All  Knowledge  Comes  Through  the  Senses.  First- 
hand Knowledge  Most  Reliable.  Careless  Observers. 


CONTENTS  IX 

Laboratory  Methods.  Inductive  Philosophy.  Use 
of  Pictures  and  Picture  Machines.  Drawing  and 
Music.  Agriculture.  Manual  Training.  Domestic 
Science.  The  Teacher  is  the  Workman,  the  Me- 
chanic, and  the  Architect. 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION         .  v    .       .  .  116 

The  Education  of  Helen  Keller.  Sensation.  Per- 
ception. Observation.  The  Percept.  The  Image. 
Imagination.  Apperception.  Changes  in  the  Con- 
cepts. Formation  of  Concepts. 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PROCESS  OP  THINKING       .  '.,•'.       .       .       .  126 

The  Three  Stages  of  Thinking.  Conception.  Judg- 
ment. Reasoning.  Remedy  for  Faulty  Judgment. 
Thinking  Fatigues  the  Mind.  Credulity,  Skepticism 
and  Prejudice.  Achievements  of  Original  Think- 
ers, Newton,  Roemer,  Adams,  Le  Verrier.  Induc- 
tion. Deduction.  Perfect  Induction.  Imperfect 
Induction.  Mathematical  Induction.  Demonstrative 
Reasoning.  Algebraic  Method.  Geometric  Reasoning. 


CHAPTER  XII 

TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  THINK 145 

Attention  to  .Details.  New  Objects.  Excursions. 
One  Thing  at  a  Time.  Language. 

CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  LESSON •       •       •       •  154 

I.     THE  LESSON  ASSIGNMENT 

The  Lesson  Assignment.  Principles  of  the  As- 
signment. Methods  of  the  Assignment.  Rules  for  the 
Assignment.  Time  for  the  Assignment. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  LESSON  CONTINUED     ..,•»».  169 

III.      THE  LESSON  PREPARATION 

Incorrect  Methods  of  Study.  Real  Study.  Prep- 
aration of  the  Student.  Preparation  of  the  Teacher. 
Lesson  Plans. 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE  LESSON  CONTINUED    .       .       .       .       .       .       .204 

III.    THE  LESSON  RECITATION 

The  Recitation.  The  Purposes  of  the  Recitation. 
Rules  of  the  Recitation.  Forms  of  the  Recitation. 
Methods  of  the  Recitation.  Steps  of  the  Recitation. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OP  TEACHING       .       .       •       .228 

The  Recitaiton  Period.  The  Study  Period.  The 
Playground  Period.  The  Written  Test.  The  Ex- 
amination. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT        *       .       .  '    ,      ./.      .       .  250 

Discipline.  Purpose  of  Discipline.  School  Regu- 
lations. Enforcement  of  Regulations.  Penalties 
and  Punishment.  Principles  Governing  Penalties 
and  Punishment. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN  EDUCATION       .;••     .,     .       .257 

Kinds  of  Play.  Modern  View  of  Play.  Value  of 
Play.  Athletics  in  Modern  Schools.  Advantages  of 
Athletics. 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  PROBLEM 273 

The  Rural  Problem.    Exodus  from  the  Country. 
The  Rural  School.   Consolidation  of  Schools.   Trans- 
portation   of    Pupils.     Course    of    Study.       County 
Supervision.     The   County   Institute.     The    Social 
Center. 


PEEFACE 

The  author's  aim  in  this  book  has  been  to  state 
in  simple  and  compact  form  some  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  education  and  to  suggest  how 
these  may  be  applied  in  the  processes  of  teaching 
in  our  public  schools. 

The  book  is  not  a  treatise  on  School  Manage- 
ment. To  have  undertaken  a  discussion  of  the 
principles  of  school  administration  would  have 
extended  the  volume  beyond  its  contemplated  size. 
There  are  many  excellent  treatises  on  this  phase 
of  school  work  that  are  available  to  the  teacher. 

Neither  has  there  been  an  attempt  to  particular- 
ize concerning  the  methods  of  teaching  specific 
subjects,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  careful  reader 
will  find  throughout  the  work  a  discussion  of  the 
principles  upon  which  the  general  processes  of 
the  teaching  of  all  subjects  are  based. 

The  author  is  aware  that  the  book  is  but  a 
meager  contribution  to  the  volume  of  extant  peda- 
gogical literature.  Throughout  the  work  he  has 
endeavored  to  stress  principles  instead  of  details, 
and  to  make  helpful  suggestions  instead  of  dog- 
matical statements.  He  believes  with  Emerson, 
that  "the  best  part  of  a  book  is  not  what  it  con- 
tains, but  what  it  suggests." 

The  author's  obligations  in  the  preparation  of 
the  work  are  heavy.  Hon.  W.  F.  Doughty,  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  Texas, 


PREFACE 

has  read  all  the  manuscript  and  made  valuable 
suggestions  from  time  to  time.  Mr.  W.  C.  Ed- 
wards, editor  of  the  Eecord  and  Chronicle  (Den- 
ton),  has  been  of  great  service  in  carefully  read- 
ing and  criticising  the  manuscript.  Mr.  J.  K. 
Swenson,  Miss  M.  Anne  Moore,  and  Mr.  J.  W. 
Smith,  all  of  the  North  Texas  State  Normal  Col- 
lege, have  rendered  valuable  assistance.  Mr. 
Swenson  wrote  Chapters  XVIII  and  XIX ;  Miss 
Moore  contributed  Chapters  XII,  XIV  and  XV, 
on  "The  Lesson";  Mr.  Smith  prepared  the  index, 
by  means  of  which  the  value  of  the  book  is  greatly 
increased.  The  competency  and  the  interest  of 
Miss  Gertrude  Wear,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr. 
A.  C.  McGinnis,  in  preparing  type  written  cop- 
ies of  the  manuscript,  rendered  it  possible  for  the 
book  to  appear  on  time.  Proper  recognition  has 
been  given  to  those  who  kindly  furnished  the  les- 
son plans  where  the  plans,  themselves,  have  been 
introduced. 


Denton,  Texas. 
February  4, 1916. 


CHAPTEK  I 

THE  BIOLOGICAL   BASIS   OF   EDUCATION 

If  we  compare  the  young  child  with  the  young 
domestic  animal,  we  are  impressed  with  the  utter 
helplessness  of  the  child,  and  the  long  time  it 
requires  the  constant  and  watchful  care  of  the 
parent.  If  we  contrast  the  young  of  the  domestic 
animal  with  that  of  a  still  lower  order  of  animal  The  young- 
life,  we  find  that  in  the  ability  to  take  care  of  itself  anlmal 
the  young  of  the  lower  order  is  the  superior.  Con- 
tinuing this  examination  backwards  or  down- 
wards, through  different  orders  of  animal  life, 
when  we  reach  the  protozoon,  the  lowest  order 
recognized  by  the  biologist,  we  find  that  the  young 
has  all  the  traits  of  the  mature  protozoon. 

If  a  drop  of  water,  taken  from  a  stagnant  pool 
and  placed  on  a  glass  slip,  be  examined  with  a  good 
microscope,  it  will  be  found  teeming  with  animal 
life.  These  minute  animals,  too  small  to  be  seen 
with  the  unaided  eye,  have  all  the  functions  neces- 
sary to  life.  The  entire  body  of  one  of  these  pro- 
tozoa is  composed  of  a  single  cell,  whereas  the 
body  of  an  animal  of  higher  order  is  composed  of 
almost  innumerable  cells.  Selecting  for  examina- 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The 
amoeba 


Reproduction 
of  the  amoeba 


Life  cycle 
of  the 

mosquito. 


Wasps  de- 
posit supply 
of  food  in 

iiests. 


tion  the  amoeba,  one  of  the  simplest  of  protozoa, 
we  find  that  the  body  is  not  made  tip  of  distinct 
organs,  such  as  brain,  heart,  and  lungs.  There 
are  no  nerves,  no  muscles,  no  stomach.  The  single 
cell  constituting  the  body  performs  in  a  simple 
manner  all  the  functions  necessary  to  the  life  of 
the  amoeba.  The  soft  body,  coming  in  contact  with 
a  particle  of  matter  suitable  for  fodd,  presses 
itself  around  it  and  absorbs  it.  The  entire  struc- 
ture of  the  cell  performs  the  same  function  for  the 
amoeba  that  the  stomach  performs  for  the  higher 
animal. 

The  amoeba's  method  of  reproduction  is  equally 
simple.  When  it  reaches  a  certain  state  the  body 
becomes  elongated.  About  midway  between  the 
ends  begins  a  depression  or  fission,  which  in- 
creases until  the  body  is  completely  divided  into 
two  separate  parts,  each  part  becoming  a  distinct 
animal,  a  duplicate  of  the  old  one.  Each  is  half 
the  original  parent.  This  process  is  called  repro- 
duction by  fission. 

Passing  from  the  protozoon  to  a  much  higher 
form  of  life,  let  us  observe  a  few  species  of 
insects.  The  mosquito  deposits  its  eggs  in  stag- 
nant water  in  which  the  young  larva  finds  suitable 
food.  When  it  has  passed  through  the  larval  and 
pupal  stages,  it  emerges  from  the  water  a  complete 
adult  mosquito,  in  all  respects  equal  to  the  parent. 
The  entire  cycle  from  egg  to  adult  has  been  no 
more  than  ten  days.  As  a  mosquito,  it  has  no 
childhood  and  no  education. 

The  wasp,  a  higher  order  of  insect,  prepares  a 
crude  kind  of  nest,  in  which  are  deposited  the  eggs, 


THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION  5 

together  with  the  bodies  of  spiders  or  small  insects 
and  larvae  to  serve  for  food  for  the  young  when 
the  eggs  have  hatched.  With  food  at  hand  suffi- 
cient to  take  them  through  the  larval  stage,  the 
young  wasps  come  out  fully  developed. 

Most  species  of  spiders  spin  cocoons  in  which 
to  deposit  great  numbers  of  eggs.  Some  species 
carry  these  cocoons  about  with  them  for  protec- 
tion  of  the  eggs  until  they  are  hatched.  Then  the 
young  spiders  feed  upon  one  another,  and  but  few 
of  the  most  vigorous  sutvive. 

The  parent  bird  gathers  food  for  the  young  and  *gj  •  P*  °- 
guards  the  nest  often  at  the  risk  of  her  own  life  *^^until 
while  the  young  are  helpless.    It  is  only  a  few  they  can  ay. 
weeks,  at  most,  however,  until  the  young  birds  can 
spread  their  wings,  fly  away,  find  their  own  food, 
and  avoid  all  danger. 

Mammals  in  the  wild  state  conceal  their  young, 


nourish  and  protect  them  during  infancy,  but  in  a  their  young- 
few  months  the  young  become  self-sustaining  and  timeho: 
are  abandoned  and  forgotten.    Birds  and  mam- 
mals, having  a  brief  period  of  infancy,  are  trained 
by  their  parents  in  some  instances,  young  birds 
being  taught  to  fly  and  kittens  to  catch  mice. 

Summing  up,  these  instances  illustrate  the  fact 
that  in  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life  infancy  is 
lacking  altogether,  and  the  new-born  animal  is  not 
dependent  upon  the  parent,  but  it  instinctively 
meets  all  the  demands  of  its  simple  life  as  effi- 
ciently as  it  ever  will.  But  it  can  not  profit  by 
experience.  In  all  things  it  acts  just  as  its  ances- 
tors acted.  It  can  do  nothing  to  vary  from  its 
progenitors.  Nature,  or  heredity,  has  done  every- 


PBINCIPLES  AND  PKOCESSES 


Heredity,  not 
education, 
the  depend- 
ence of  lower 

animal*. 


Elimination 
of  the 
weakest,  a 
developing1 
agrency. 


The  human 

infant 

helpless. 


Nerve 
connections 
made 
slowly. 


Man  does 
not  rely 
npon  instinct. 


thing  for  it ;  education,  nothing.  In  its  organism 
there  are  no  nerve  cells  to  be  adjusted;  there  is 
no  period  of  infancy,  for  no  such  period  is  neces- 
sary. The  instances  cited  illustrate  also  that  the 
young  among  vertebrates  are  dependent  in  vary- 
ing degrees  and  for  varying  lengths  of  time  upon 
parental  care,  the  period  of  helplessness  and 
dependence  increasing  as  the  type  of  animal  rises 
in  the  scale  of  complexity  and  intelligence.  For 
the  young  of  the  verebrate,  or  higher  order  of  ani- 
mal, heredity  has  done  almost  everything.  Some 
necessary  nervous  connections  have  not  been  made 
before  birth.  It  is  not  altogether  able  to  survive 
if  neglected  or  unprotected.  It  has  something 
to  learn  before  it  can  become  self  sustaining. 
That  is,  it  is  educable.  But  the  capacity  for  edu- 
cation, even  for  birds  and  mammals,  is  quite 
limited.  The  only  developing  agency  of  the  spec- 
cies  is  the  relentless  elimination  of  the  weakest. 

Helplessness  of  the  Infant. — Contrasted  with  all 
all  other  orders  of  animal  life,  man  is  unique. 
Destined  for  the  most  complex  and  varied  future, 
he  is,  at  birth,  the  least  prepared  for  it.  Of  all 
animals  he  is  at  birth  the  most  utterly  helpless, 
the  most  dependent.  Left  unattended,  he  could 
survive  but  a  few  hours.  He  enters  the  threshold 
of  life  with  few  of  the  nerve  connections  and 
adjustments  made,  and  the  comparative  slowness 
with  which  these  connections  are  made  explains 
the  long  time  required  for  their  completion  and 
the  preparation  of  the  human  infant  for  its  life. 

But  this  delay  and  these  deficiencies  in  undevel- 
oped instincts  are  vastly  overbalanced  by  his  infin- 


THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION  7 

ite  potentialities.  It  is  not  that  the  child  has  fewer 
instincts  than  the  young  of  the  lower  orders  of 
life,  but  that  he  is  less  dependent  upon  instinct 
and  relies  more  upon  the  ability  to  choose  among 
instincts. 
Even  in  savage  life,  where  the  chief  nervous  period  of 

human 

connections  necessary  are  only  those  that  enable  infancy  IB 
man  to  supply  rude  shelter,  simple  food,  and  crude 
clothing,  and  to  fashion  the  common  implements 
of  the  hunt  and  the  hand-to-hand  conflict,  the 
period  of  infancy  is  years  longer  than  that  of  the 
higher  orders  of  mammalian  life.  In  the  complex- 
ity of  a  vastly  higher  civilization,  the  child's 
dependence  upon  parental  and  institutional  sup- 
port is  correspondingly  longer. 

The  human  infant  seldom  learns  to  walk  before 
the  end  of  the  first  year ;  his  speech  is  fragmentary 
for  two  years  more.  His  babyhood  is  spent  under  man!  ° 
the  immediate  tuition  of  the  other  members  of  the 
family,  his  childhood  in  the  elementary  school,  his 
youth  in  the  high  school,  and  if  he  prepares  with 
any  degree  of  adequacy  for  active  participation 
in  a  learned  or  scientific  profession,  several  years 
beyond  his  legal  majority  must  be  spent  in  uni-  much- 
versity  or  technical  school,  largely  dependent  upon 
others  for  guidance  and  support  until  twenty-five 
or  thirty  years  of  age.  Heredity  has  done  for  him 
comparatively  little.  Education  must  do  for  him 
a  great  deal.  He  is  capable  of  progress.  He  need 
not  live  the  life  of  his  parents.  His  generation 
need  not  be  like  that  of  his  father. 

In  another  notable  way  is  man  differentiated  Man»» 

£  •        t  .111-  mi  fi          Inheritance. 

from  the  animals  next  below  him.    They  profit  to 


8  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

a  limited  extent  from  their  individual  experiences ; 
he  profits,  not  only  from  his  own  experiences,  but 
also  from  the  experiences  of  others.  To  him, 
ancestry  has  transmitted  its  history  and  its  accu- 
mulated knowledge,  its  institutions,  and  its  con- 
quest of  nature.  He  knows  of  the  dangers,  trials, 
triumphs,  and  discoveries  of  the  race,  and,  as  a 
generation,  he  begins  where  the  preceding  genera- 
tion stopped. 

Heredity.  Heredity. — It  is  pertinent  to  enquire  here  ex- 

exactly  what  the  child  owes  to  heredity.  Heredity 
includes  those  possessions  that  an  organism  brings 
with  it  into  the  world.  If  heredity  has  done  noth- 

mdividu-         *n£  ^or  them,  a^  children  are  born  with  equal  pos- 

maxf^  sibilities.     Investigation   in   any   home    readily 

discloses  the  fact  that  there  are  marked  differ- 
ences between  children  of  the  same  parents ;  dif- 
ferences in  traits,  capacities,  and  proclivities. 

?iS3tl17  Family  Traits. — The  variations  between  chil- 

dren of  the  same  parents  are,  as  a  general  rule, 
less  marked  than  those  between  children  of  differ- 
ent parentage.  There  are  usually  family  traits 
and  resemblances  more  or  less  marked  in  physical 
features;  color  of  the  eyes  or  the  hair,  facial 
expression,  etc.  Even  if  the  physical  likenesses 
seem  lacking  among  brothers  and  sisters,  fre- 
qently  there  are  noticeable  resemblances  in  mental 
traits,  aptitudes,  tastes,  or  tendencies. 

If  we  study  the  histories  of  different  families, 
we  will  often  find  that  each  has  had  its  own  apti- 
tudes for  several  generations.  Some  have  been 
characterized  by  scholarship  or  achievements  in 
science  or  love  of  the  fine  arts,  while  others  have 


THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION  lJ 

been  notorious  for  penuriousness,  dishonesty,  or 
thrif tlessness.  Investigation  of  a  family  through 
several  generations  has  disclosed  such  individual 
traits  of  an  ancestor  throughout  a  long  line  of 
posterity. 

One  of  these  investigations  has  brought 
into  prominence  the  descendants  of  Jonathan 
Edwards,  an  American  clergyman  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  He  was  a  man  of  exceptional  intel- 
lect, signal  ability,  sterling  character,  and  broad 
education.  Among  the  more  than  1,400  of  his 
descendants  who  have  been  located,  were  found 
many  whose  accomplishments  in  various  fields 
rendered  them  conspicuous— college  presidents 
and  professors,  ministers,  physicians,  governors 
of  state,  members  of  Congress,  and  an  almost  total 
absence  of  paupers  and  criminals. 

The  descendants  of  a  thriftless  fisherman,  who 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1720,  have  afforded 
another  remarkable  illustration  of  the  constant 
reappearance  of  a  family  characteristic.  Among 
the  more  than  1,200  individuals  descended  from 
this  fisherman,  who  have  been  located,  were  found 
200  convicted  criminals,  many  habitual  thieves  and 
burglars,  some  murderers,  and  more  than  300  pro- 
fessional beggars.  Immorality  of  the  lowest  type 
was  a  constantly  recurring  characteristic  of  this,  paml17' 
the  notorious  "Juke  Family. " 

Investigation  of  a  line  of  descent  from  a  feeble- 
minded girl  led  to  the  discovery  that,  of  about  200 
individuals,  found  in  what  Dr.  Gordon  calls  the 
"Kallikak  Family",  more  than  150  were  feeble- 
minded,  noted  for  their  delinquency,  degeneracy, 


10 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Acquired 
character, 
ivtics  not 
trans. 
missive. 


Congenital 
traits  trans- 
missilole. 


Talent*  run 
in  families. 


Genius  not 
understood. 


imbecility,  pauperism,  and  criminality. 

While,  by  a  few  writers,  heredity  is  used  to 
include  those  qualities,  characteristics,  and  habits, 
acquired  by  parents  in  their  lifetime,  it  is  no 
longer  generally  believed  that  acquired  traits  are 
transmissible,  since  all  evidence  accumulated  on 
this  subject  does  not  point  to  an  unquestioned 
example  of  the  transmission  of  an  acquired  char- 
acteristic from  a  parent  to  a  child.  The  prepond- 
erance of  competent  opinion  is  now  that  acquired 
traits  are  transmitted  rarely,  if  ever,  and  that  if 
there  be  a  transmission  of  such  traits,  it  takes 
place  in  so  small  a  degree  as  to  be  altogether  neg- 
ligible. 

We  may  assert,  therefore,  that  children  inherit 
from  their  parents  only  those  characteristics 
which  the  parents,  themselves,  inherited — charac- 
teristics that  are  congenital,  inherent,  in-born  in 
the  race. 

Admitting  that  talents  "run  in  families ",  one 
is  constrained  to  believe  that  the  children  of  gifted 
parents  are  much  more  apt  than  others  less  for- 
tunately born  to  develop  those  talents  which  made 
their  parents  notable.  There  is  now  no  dispute 
concerning  the  advantages  of  birth,  considered  as 
to  the  in-born  capacities  derived  through  racial 
inheritance.  As  certainly  as  it  will  tell  in  the 
thoroughbred  horse,  "blood  will  tell"  in  man,  for, 
as  Emerson  says, '  *  There  must  be  capacity  for  cul- 
ture in  blood". 

Many  of  the  problems  of  genius  are  still 
unsolved.  How  a  Shakespeare,  a  Poe,  or  an  Edi- 
son appears  suddenly  is  not  understood.  Educa- 


THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF   EDUCATION  11 

tion  can  not  do  all.  It  develops  but  it  does  not 
create.  Education  does  not  supply  the  capacity; 
it  assists  the  individual  to  make  the  best  use  of 

,..,..,  ...          ,.  ..  .  does  not 

his  inherited  capacities,  his  training,  experience,  create, 
and  environment.    It  can  not  develop  a  mediocre 
mind  into  a  master  in  any  art  or  profession. 
Much  of  the  deftness  of  touch  that  leads  to  pre-  preeminence 

.  ....      often  due  to 

eminence  in  music,  in  surgery,  and  in  painting  is  in.iiom 
in-born.    Education  ought  to  discover  such  talent  capa' 
or  genius,  and  provide   the  opportunity  for   its 
development  to  the  highest  usefulness,  as  well  as 
to  raise  the  ordinary  individual  to  the  level  of  the 
race. 

The  individual  can  not  control  his  birth,  his 
talents,  or  his  lack  of  talent  descended  unto  him 
from  previous  generations,  but  he  is  born  free  to 
live  his  own  life,  to  work  out,  within  the  limit  of 
his  capacity,  his  own  destiny.  The  acquired  traits 
of  his  parents  are  denied  him,  but  he  comes  into 
his  life  unhampered  by  inherited  prejudices,  pre- 
dilections, biases,  idiosyncrasies,  or  their  acquired 
tendencies.  He  is  rich  in  the  common  inheritance 
and  achievements  of  his  race;  he  has  a  share  in 
the  improved  social  and  economic  conditions 
which  have  been  handed  down  to  him  by  his 
ancestors. 

Educability. — The  capacity  for  receiving  educa-  significance 

,.          ,.          i/.          ,,    .,r          I        •  V«         i  ,1        of  size  of 

cation  hinges  in  all  the  animal  kingdom  on  the  tue 
comparative  size  of  the  cerebrum,  which  indicates 
the  capacity  for  construction,  the  power  of  form- 
ing adjustments,  the  adaptability  to  environment. 
The  recognition  of  this  fact  (now  no  longer  seri- 
ously questioned)  gives  to  man  the  greatest  capac- 


12 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Man  can  "be 
educated. 


Kan  must  "bo 
educated. 


Necessity 
for  long- 
period  of 
infancy. 


Period  of 
plasticity 


Education 
more  diffi- 
cult after 
adolescent 
period. 


Youth  the 
time  for 
habit 
formation. 


ity  for  education.  It  gives  him,  too,  the  greatest 
need  for  education,  for,  because  of  his  lack  of  pre- 
natal nerve  adjustment  and  of  the  inability  of  his 
parents  to  transmit  to  him  their  acquired  charac- 
teristics, without  education — did  he  survive — he 
would  remain  the  most  helpless  of  all  creatures. 

Hence,  the  necessity  for  a  prolonged  period  of 
infancy,  a  period  of  the  acquisition  of  experiences, 
of  development  of  faculties,  of  acquiring  the 
power  of  adaptation  to  environment,  of  prepara- 
tion for  complex  existence. 

Period  of  Plasticity.— There  is  still  another  fact 
of  stupendous  import  that  must  not  be  ignored. 
The  period  of  immaturity,  including  infancy, 
childhood,  and  adolescence  is  also  the  period  of 
plasticity,  the  period  of  adjustment — in  other 
words,  the  period  of  education.  Those  adjustments 
that  fit  man  for  the  higher,  broader,  and  richer 
life,  immeasurably  above  the  attainment  of  the 
lower  animal,  must  be  carefully  formed  while 
young.  After  adolescence  the  nervous  tissue  loses 
some  of  its  plasticity;  the  formation  of  new  con- 
nections becomes  more  and  more  difficult  as  the 
years  go  by.  It  is  said  that  after  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  no  one  learns  to  speak  a  new  language  without 
accent.  Youth  is  the  most  opportune  time  for 
habit  formation ;  impressions  are  then  more  easily 
made  and  are  most  unalterably  fixed.  Later  im- 
pressions are  less  vivid  and  less  permanent. 
Habit  of  neatness,  of  punctuality,  of  industry,  of 
thoughtful  observation,  formed  when  young,  cling 
to  one  through  life  frequently.  Attempts  to 
acquire  in  later  life  those  delicate  tastes  that 


THE  BIOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION  13 

mark  culture,  or  even  to  master  tlie  conventional- 
ities of  society,  generally  end  only  in  failure,  and 
often  render  ludicrous  those  affecting  them. 
High  ideals  and  great  ambitions  can  be  implanted 
in  the  minds  of  the  young,  and  these  properly 
cared  for,  ennoble  the  entire  life,  while  a  neglected 
youth  often  results  in  low  ideals,  lack  of  ambition, 
and  a  disappointed  old  age. 

At  sixteen  the  greater  number  of  personal  hab- 
its  have  been  formed,  the  ideals  established,  and  training, 
the  manners  crystallized.  Some  writers  seem  to 
delight  in  discovering  examples  of  great  thinkers, 
scholars,  or  inventors,  who,  in  youth,  were  indo- 
lent, careless,  and  intractable.  Doubtless  many 
such  examples  may  be  found,  but  their  number 
might  be  multipled  many  times  without  detracting 
from  the  tremendous  importance  of  proper  educa- 
tion during  the  adolescent  period  of  life. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  AIMS  OF  EDUCATION 

Definition  of  It  is  well  nigh  impossible  to  give  a  definition  of 
difficult?11  education  that  would  be  accepted  by  even  a 
respectable  minority  of  those  whose  experience 
and  training  give  them  the  right  to  speak  authori- 
tatively. The  subject  is  so  vast;  it  presents  so 
many  phases;  it  can  be  surveyed  from  so  many 
viewpoints,  that  differences  of  opinion  as  to  what 
education  is,  should  not  occasion  surprise. 

An  individual's  conception  of  the  aims  of  edu- 
cation is  determined  by  his  ideals  of  what  a  man 
ought  to  be;  a  nation's  conception,  by  its  ideal  of 
what  a  good  citizen  is.  There  are  as  many  types 
of  education  as  there  are  types  of  manhood. 

One  of  the  aims  of  education  is  the  indoctrina- 
tion of  the  young  into  correct  standards  of  desire, 
safe  criteria  of  conduct,  and  right  conception  of 
Main  aim  of  life.  The  child  is  led  more  easily  in  the  direction 
of  his  wishes,  therefore,  his  inclinations  should  be 
directed  while  he  is  still  young.  Adults,  them- 
selves, endure  drudgery  only  when  it  promises  the 
realization  of  something  that  pleases  the  fancy, 
gratifies  ambition,  or  offers  satisfaction  of  some 
kind. 

spartan  Spartan  Education. — Sparta  affords,  probably, 

emupchaii?e«i      tlie  best  illustration  of  that  type  of  education 
state!0  which  suppresses  the  individuality  of  the  citizen 


THE  AIMS   OF   EDUCATION  15 

for  the  benefit  of  the  State.  To  the  ancient  Spar- 
tan, patriotism  was  the  overshadowing  virtue. 
To  him  duty  to  State  was  paramount.  The  war- 
rior was  the  ideal  man.  The  constant  menace  of 
rebellion  of  conquered  tribes,  political  jealousy  of 
other  cities,  arising  also  to  power  and  affluence, 
caused  Sparta  to  emphasize  military  training. 
The  Spartan  aim  of  education  was,  therefore,  to 
develop  physical  strength,  to  instil  courage,  to 
induce  fortitude,  and  to  inculcate  obedience  to 
authority.  Spartan  education  concerned  itself 
only  with  the  duty  of  the  citizen  to  the  State ;  it 
totally  ignored  the  duty  of  man  to  man. 

Athenian  Education. — Athens  esteemed  beauty  Athenian 
as  well  as  strength.    Symmetry  and  proportion  ?m™haii?e 
were  characteristics  of  her  architecture.  Athenian  cnlture- 
education  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace  as  well  as 
those  of  war.    It  laid  great  emphasis  upon  culture 
as  displayed  in  architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  literature.    Wisdom  in  council  was  regarded 
as  praiseworthy  as  courage  on  the  battlefield. 

Roman  Education. — In  Rome  education  had  a  Bo^an 
cast  that  in  modern  expression  would  be  termed  ^°hasi?e 
practical.    The  concrete  appealed  to  the  Eoman  * 
mind  more  forcibly  than  the  purely  abstract.    The 
Roman  prized  the  useful  more  highly  than  the 
aesthetic.    He  strove  for  achievement  of  some- 
thing of  material  value.    He  placed  a  lower  esti- 
mate upon  the  skill  necessary  to  the  production  of 
a  statue  or  a  painting  than  upon  the  knowledge 
requisite  in  the  construction  of  a  highway  or  an 
aqueduct. 

In  both  Athens  and  Rome  patriotism  was  a 


16 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Modern 
education  is 
a  'blend  of 
former 
types. 


Man  craves 
to  "be  a 
pioneer  in 
something. 


virtue,  cowardice  a  vice,  and  treason  a  crime,  but 
in  neither  was  the  individual  despoiled  of  his 
individuality. 

In  personal  bearing  the  Spartan  exhibited 
strength;  the  Athenian,  grace;  the  Roman,  dig- 
nity. The  Spartan  idealized  courage ;  the  Athen- 
ian, beauty;  the  Koman,  utility.  In  both  Athens 
and  Home  the  statesman  and  the  orator  shared 
honors  with  the  warrior. 

Many  types  of  the  more  modern  education  have 
partaken  of  the  elements  of  the  types  of  Sparta, 
Athens,  or  Rome.  Most  modern  types  have  been 
different  blends  of  two  or  of  all  of  them,  modified 
as  the  changes  in  social  and  economic  conditions 
have  from  time  to  time  demanded. 

Although  different  ages,  different  races,  and 
different  nations  have  always  had  different  edu- 
cational ideals;  although  philosophers  have  been 
at  variance  concerning  educational  aims  and  proc- 
esses, there  is  not  now  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion 
among  students  of  education  with  respect  to  what 
education  ought  to  do  for  a  man;  what,  in  the 
main,  it  ought  to  make  of  him. 

Eacial  differences,  influences  of  environment, 
and  inherited  predisposition  account  for  the  con- 
trariety of  doctrine  that  has  bewildered  the  young 
student  of  education,  and  caused  him  to  doubt  that 
education  is  a  science.  Candid,  sincere,  thinkers 
often  reach  contradictory  conclusions,  but  the 
iconoclast  may  be  safely  charged  with  unwar- 
ranted assumptions  and  with  the  advocacy  of  the- 
ories that  are  sometimes  advanced  for  solely  mer- 
cenary or  selfish  purposes.  Some  cults,  schools, 


THE  AIMS  OF  EDUCATION  17 

and  sects  have,  no  doubt,  owed  their  origin  to 
influences  not  wholly  sincere.  Man  naturally 
craves  to  be  a  discoverer,  a  pathfinder,  and  the 
temptation  to  claim  a  new  discovery  or  to  evolve 
a  new  theory  is  sometimes  too  great  for  one  whose 
passion  for  attracting  public  attention  is  exces- 
sively developed. 

Adjustment.^!1  hat  education  means  the  devel- 
i  opment  of  all  the  potentialities  and  capabilities  of 
[  man,  it  is  substantially  agreed.    It  is  the  process 
^of  leading  him  into  the  full  possession  of  all  the 
achievements  of  his  racial  inheritance.    Education 
means  his  development  along  the  lines  of  the  high- 
est and  best  ideals  attained  by  civilization.    It  is 
a  process  of  adjustment  to  -conditions,  circum- 
stances, state  of  society,  to  climate,  to  human  insti- 
tutions, to  ideals  of  probity  and  integrity  and  con- 
ceptions of  perfect  manhood  developed  by  cen- 
turies of  human  struggle  towards  perfection. 

It  is  with  difficulty  that  species  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals  adjust  themselves  to  environments  that  pre-  conditions, 
sent  even  little  variation.  Man,  in  order  to 
attain  to  his  highest  estate,  must  acquire  the  abil- 
ity to  adjust  himself  to  environment  of  wide  vari- 
ation. That  he  has  done  so,  and  is  continually 
doing  so,  is  obvious.  He  meets  changing  condi- 
tions of  climate,  of  seasons,  and  of  weather  by 
change  of  clothing  and  food.  By  his  knowledge  of 
producing  fire  and  manufacturing  ice,  he  renders 
habitable  alike  the  frigid  and  the  torrid  zone. 

In  his  efforts  better  to  adjust  himself  to  environ-  Man  controls 
ments,  to  improve  his  social  and  economic  condi- 
tions,  he  has  learned  to  control,  direct  and  subdue 


18 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


There  are 
different 
degrees  in 
the  value 
of 
knowledge. 


Society 

demands  the 
diffusion  of 
knowledge. 


Culture  is 
concerned  in 
what  the 
man  is. 


the  forces  of  nature,  substituting  them  for  his 
own  muscular  energy.  He  has  learned  in  field  and 
farm,  in  mill  and  mine,  at  home  and  on  the  street, 
from  books,  laboratories,  experiments,  lectures, 
•x.  museums,  travel,  and  associations. 

;  Knowledge. — Every  phase  of  life  is  educational. 
All  experiences  produce  knowledge  and  add  to 
its  store  for  each  individual.  All  knowledge  is 
valuable,  but  there  are  various  degrees  of  value. 
Some  knowledge — some  facts — are  too  trivial  and 
insignificant  to  employ  the  mind  when  it  can  be 
more  profitably  directed  to  the  quest  of  knowledge 
of  real  moment.  Some  facts,  however — them- 
selves seemingly  insignificant — are  indexes  that 
point  to  more  valuable  facts.  The  immense  ad- 
vance made  in  the  progress  of  the  race  by  the  use 
of  the  numerous  kinds  of  steam  engine  is  due  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  apparently  unimportant  fact 
that  liquids  subjected  to  heat  vaporize  with 
enormous  expansion. 

The  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  necessary  to  its 
becoming  a  factor  in  education.  Society  demands 
that  all  knowledge  be  made  available.  Copyright 
and  patent  right  laws  are  made  to  encourage  origi- 
nal thought  and  investigation,  but  the  discoverer 
of  a  new  principle  or  the  inventor  of  a  new  appli- 
cation of  an  old  principle  is  expected  to  bestow  his 
discovery  upon  the  public.  He  must  not  withhold 
that  which  he  has  found  to  be  capable  of  contribut- 
ing to  the  health  or  happiness  of  mankind. 

Culture. — Culture  is  conceded  to  be  one  aim  of 
education.  Culture  is  a  devotion  to  the  best  in 
all  phases  of  living;  it  is  love  of  the  ideal,  zeal 


THE  AIMS   OF   EDUCATION  19 

in  quest  of  the  highest  elements  and  finest  fruits 
of  civilization,  liberality  of  mind,  sympathy  with 
all  things  that  contribute  to  the  charm  of  gentle, 
gracious,  affable   demeanor   among  men.    It   is 
that    magnanimous    and    sympathetic    attitude 
towards  one's  fellowmen  that  makes  one  prefer  to 
direct  them  rather  than  to   govern  them.    As 
applied  to  the  process  of  education,  culture  differ- 
entiates between  the  liberal  education  and  the 
strictly  professional  or  technical.    Culture  is  con- 
cerned more  in  the  man  than  the  workman,  the 
chemist,  or  the  physician.    It  is  interested  more 
in  being  than  in  doing,  in  the  ability  to  appreciate 
excellence  anywhere  and  everywhere,  and  in  the 
training  that  enables  a  man  to  discriminate  in  his 
choice  of  the  best.    Culture  denotes  a  broad  sym- 
pathy that  extends  beyond  the  boundaries  of  state, 
nation,  or  race.    As  Dr.  Eliot  says :    '  '  The  worthy 
fruit  of  academic  culture  is  an  open  mind,  trained 
to  careful  thinking,  instructed  in  the  method  of 
philosophic  investigation,  acquainted  in  a  general 
way  with  the  accumulated  thought  of  past  genera- 
tions, and  penetrated  with  humility." 

Service. — Another  recognized  aim  of  education 
is  service.  The  notion  that  the  aim  of  education  is 
to  give  an  individual  such  an  advantage  over  his 
fellowmen  that  he  can  avoid  work  and  have  them 
to  labor  for  him  is  a  vicious  misconception  of  the 
purpose  of  education.  Some  parents,  solicitous 
for  their  children's  welfare,  and  ambitious  for 
their  preferment,  cultivate  in  them  mischievous 
ideas  concerning  the  import  of  education.  The 
selfish  incentive  that  regards  only  the  boy's  pro- 


20 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Tlie  socially 
efficient  man 
and  his 
ideals  of 
education. 


motion  in  his  education  is  too  narrow,  and  it  often 
results  in  disappointment  to  the  parent  and  the 
discomfiture  of  the  boy.  Prisons  and  almshouses 
are  tenanted  by  those  whose  misconception  of  life 
and  disregard  for  the  rights  of  others  had  caused 
them  to  lead  profitless  lives,  under  the  delusion 
that  education  grants  special  privileges  and 
exemptions,  and  enables  the  educated  to  "live  by 
their  wits ' '  at  the  expense  of  others. 

The  chief  reason  that  a  man  should  acquire 
knowledge  is  not  that  he  only,  but  that  all  others, 
may  be  better  for  its  acquisition.  The  true  incen- 
tive to  attain  skill,  culture,  and  character  is  that 
society,  as  a  whole,  may  be  benefited  by  their 
attainment. 

A  far  nobler  conception  of  education  is  that  it 
is  a  preparation  for  service,  for  social  efficiency. 
A  socially  efficient  man  is  he  who  can  earn  his  own 
living,  who  does  not  interfere  with  others  in  earn- 
ing theirs,  and  is  able  to  do  his  part  in  promoting 
the  progress  of  his  generation.  To  earn  a  living 
is  to  pay  for  it ;  not  to  receive  it  of  society  without 
equivalent  return.  One  should  be  able  and  willing 
to  render  service  equal  in  value  to  the  compensa- 
tion demanded.  A  socially  efficient  man  is  in  no 
respect  a  parasite.  His  vocation  is  devoid  of  any 
trace  of  mendicancy.  "Full  value  returned"  is 
the  motto  of  him  who  would  feel  that  exaltation 
of  spirit  that  can  come  only  to  him  who  knows  he 
is  worth  what  he  gets,  and  that  the  world  is  more 
his  debtor  than  his  creditor. 

The  socially  efficient  man  must  engage  in  some 
employment  that  is  either  directly  productive  or 


THE  AIMS  OF  EDUCATION  21 

ultimately  contributory  to  the  productivity  of 
others.    His  vocation  must  be  creative  of  values. 

There  is  a  variety  of  occupations  and  industries 
in  which  there  is  opportunity  for  rendering  useful  service  aro 
service.  The  farmer,  the  ranchman,  and  the  fish-  ° 
erman,  furnish  products  for  food;  the  mechanic, 
the  carpenter,  and  the  manufacturer  supply  the 
necessities  and  the  comforts  of  the  family;  the 
physician  protects  the  public  from  the  ravages 
of  disease,  the  minister  directs  to  higher  motives 
of  life,  the  teacher  contributes  to  public  intelli- 
gence —  all  these  either  directly  or  indirectly  min- 
ister to  the  productivity  of  the  workmen  in  other 
vocations  and  occupations. 

Whoever  by  his  invention  or  discovery  makes  £la*esrent 
it  easier  for  man  to  be  healthier  or  happier,  who 

*- 


.,         t,  ,        .      ,  ,    ,    a  man  may 

increases  the  capacity  for  physical  or  mental 


effort,  who  facilitates  the  extraction  of  natural 
riches  from  the  soil,  the  sea,  the  forest,  or  the  P 
mine,  or  who  finds  a  more  effective  means  of  con- 
verting these  products  into  articles  of  usefulness 
is  socially  efficient.  Whoever  paints  a  picture  that 
inspires  to  loftier  ideals  or  purer  thought,  who 
carves  a  statue  that  elevates  the  tone  of  living, 
justifies  his  own  existence.  Whoever  writes  a 
poem  or  a  book,  or  delivers  an  oration  that  ani- 
mates the  weak,  encourages  the  despondent,  or 
reclaims  the  wayward,  is  a  benefactor. 

How  much  of  man's  happiness,  as  well  as  his 
productivity,  is  indebted  to  Janssen  for  the 
microscope,  to  Pasteur  for  the  discovery  of  the 
cause  and  cure  of  hydophobia,  to  Jenner  for  the 
vaccination  against  smallpox!  How  much  suffer- 


22 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


A  practical 
illustration 
of  efficient 
service  to 
mankind. 


ing  has  been  averted  by  the  use  of  anaesthetics  as 
first  applied  by  Dr.  Crawford  Long ! 

A  great  field  is  always  open  to  the  efficient  man 
who  seeks  new  means  of  converting  crude  products 
into  articles  of  usefulness.  Among  numerous 
examples  the  history  of  the  products  of  cotton 
seed  is  a  good  illustration.  Long  after  cotton 
became  an  article  of  commerce,  the  seed  was 
thought  valueless.  For  it  there  was  neither  de- 
mand nor  market.  Ginners  stipulated  that  their 
patrons  must  remove  their  cotton  seed.  Somebody 
discovered  that  the  seed  was  a  good  fertilizer,  then 
it  was  found  an  excellent  food  for  cattle,  after- 
wards the  oil  of  the  seed  was  extracted  and 
refined.  The  perfect  edibility  of  the  oil  and  its 
by-products  makes  them  suitable  for  all  purposes 
for  which  animal  fats  are  used.  Two  of  these  by- 
products, oleomargarine  and  lard  compound,  are 
excellent  substitutes  for  butter  and  lard,  respect- 
ively. Various  kinds  of  soap  and  many  toilet 
articles  are  derivatives  of  the  once  valueless  cot- 
ton seed,  and  through  intelligent  experimentation, 
what  was  once  an  unmarketable  product  has 
become  a  staple  article  of  commerce. 


CHAPTER  III 

EDUCATIONAL,  AGENCIES 

/'""^Whatever  influences  one  in  such  a  way  as  to 
/  change  his  character  or  his  manner  of  life  in  any 
'^particular,  is  a  means  of  education.    It  is  quite 
evident  that  numerous  influences  operate  to  form 
the  character  of  every  individual.    It  is  doubtful  AH  expert, 
if  any  experience,  especially  during  the  plastic  SSoriat&ns 
period  of  an  individual,  is  without  its  effect  in  educational 
some  degree  upon  his  life,  his  character,  ideals,  afireacie8- 
modes  of  thought,  standards  of  conduct,  or  some 
other  process  or  feature  entering  into  the  warp 
and  woof  of  the  "sum  total"  of  the  man.    Daily 
associations,  comradeship — the  neighbor's  boys — 
are  potent  educational  agencies.    Sometimes  the 
failure  of  an  enterprise  is  caused  by  some  circum- 
stance which  in  itself  is  insignificant — a  broken 
rail,  a  missent  letter,  a  delayed  telegram,  tardi- 
ness in  keeping  an  appointment.    The  fortune  of 
battle  has  often  been  turned  by  some  apparently 
trivial  incident. 

Many  a  boy  has  had  his  slumbering  spirit 
awakened  by  an  oration  or  a  sermon,  and  through 
its  influence  caused  to  begin  a  new  career  and  a 
more  significant -life.  The  silent  influence  of  a 
picture  placed  where  it  could  be  seen  by  a  child 
from  day  to  day  has  often  produced  a  transfor- 
mation in  its  disposition. 


24          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

Society  recognizes  as  educational  agencies 
monuments  which  in  the  language  of  the  sculptor 
commemorate  achievements  of  statecraft  or  deeds 
of  heroism.  Hence  they  are  placed  in  public  parks 
and  other  frequented  places  not  so  much  for  the 
purpose  of  honoring  the  dead  as  for  their  bene- 
ficial effect  on  the  living. 

Newspapers,  magazines,  public  libraries,  lec- 
tures, chautauquas,  lyceum  courses,  all  forms  of 
social  and  commercial  intercourse,  are  now  re- 
garded as  important  factors  in  education. 

All  forms  of  occupation,  all  places  of  business 
afford  instruction,  supply  knowledge,  experience, 
and  training.  Mercantile  establishments  furnish 
abundant  opportunity  for  learning  human  nature 
of  engendering  habits  of  courtesy,  diplomacy,  self 
restraint,  and  punctuality.  All  are  phases  of  edu- 
cation. 

Lodges,  clubs,  orders,  and  societies  of  various 
kinds  are  means  of  intellectual  and  moral  uplift. 
Sports,  games,  and  plays,  by  affording  relaxation 
and  invigoration,  cultivation  of  the  social  instincts, 
by  teaching  the  necessity  of  quick  decision  and 
action,  and  above  all,  co-operation,  are  educational 
factors,  the  importance  of  which  is  just  beginning 
to  receive  recognition. 

^e  c^e^  agenc*es  in  education,  as  stated  by 
agencies.         Prof.  H.  H.  Home  in  the  opening  sentence  of  his 
work  on  "Philosophy  of  Education",  are  the 
home,  the  school,  the  vocation,  the  state,  and  the 
church. 

The  Home. — Of  these  agencies  the  home  is  Srst 
in  time.  Among  primitive  people,  and  in  new  and 


EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  25 

sparsely  settled  communities,  the  home  is  the  only 
educational  agency,  as  well  as  the  only  industrial 
workshop.  The  home  is  the  basis  of  civilization. 
The  family  is  the  simplest  social  structure.  It  is 
the  most  important  as  well  as  the  most  ancient  of 
human  institutions.  All  other  institutions  are 
products  of  the  family.  Whatever  strikes  at  the 
home  attacks  civilization.  Dependence  must  be 
placed  chiefly  upon  the  home  for  the  transmission 
of  the  spiritual  inheritance  of  the  race,  its  ideals, 
its  standards  of  conduct,  its  conceptions  of  religion 
and  of  the  significance  of  life  and  its  obligations. 
It  is  in  the  home  that  the  child  learns  to  obey,  to 
respect  authority,  and  to  recognize  the  rights  of 
others.  If  the  child  fails  to  acquire  in  the  home 
the  human  graces,  he  has  little  chance  of  acquir- 
ing them  from  other  institutions. 

It  is  in  the  home  that  the  child  must  acquire 
materials  for  the  foundation  upon  which  all  other 
institutions  must  build  the  man.  The  strength 
of  the  superstructure  is  dependent  upon  the  solid- 
ity  of  the  foundation. 

Civilization  must  trust  to  home  training  for 
stereotyping  habits  and  for  weaving  the  tissues 
of  character.  The  importance  of  the  home  in  edu- 
cation can  be  realized,  when  we  reflect  that  the 
child  passes  there  the  plastic  period  of  his  life. 
The  child  that  leaves  home  with  misconceptions  of 
life,  with  perverted  mental  vision,  seldom  recov- 
ers from  his  misfortune.  Moral  obliquity  is  very 
often  traceable  to  defective  home  training.  In 
after  life  one  may  fancy  that  he  has  outgrown  the 
effects  of  home  dereliction,  but  in  time  of  danger, 


26  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

temptation,  or  unusual  and  unexpected  stresses, 
the  lack  of  wise  direction  during  childhood  is  made 
manifest.  The  young  man  who  takes  from  his 
home  no  hallowed  memories,  no  convictions,  no 
indomitable  purpose,  is  poorly  equipped  for  life, 
irrespective  of  his  accomplishments  in  school  or 
college. 

In  his  "Principles  of  Education ",  Prof.  Bolton 
says :  '  '  The  ideals  which  dominate  life  and  char- 
acter, and  give  them  significance,  owe  more  to 
home  influences  than  to  all  others  combined. " 

Tne  teacher  could  profit  by  the  study  of  the 
child  at  home.  It  is  there  his  nature  can  best  be 
understood.  The  naturalist  should  go  to  the 
jungle,  and  not  to  the  zoological  garden,  the 
botanist  to  the  hill  and  the  meadow,  and  not  to 
the  greenhouse,  for  the  best  information. 

In  the  home  the  child  is  himself.  The  home  is 
not  a  place  where  the  child  mostly  listens,  but 
where  all  the  senses  are  alert  and  clamorous  for 
expression.  There,  all  the  work  is  spontaneous. 
In  the  home  there  is  a  direct  motive  behind  every 
activity.  There,  the  child  is  eager  to  act,  and  he 
acts  naturally,  in  his  own  way,  and  in  his  own 
time.  He  is  ready  to  help  his  brother  with  his 
task,  and  is  not  afraid  of  reprimand  for  doing  it. 
There  he  works  without  concern  as  to  marks, 
grades,  credits,  or  symbols  of  any  kind  on  a  peri- 
odical report  card.  He  does. things  because  of  his 
gratification  in  acquiring  skill  in  their  accomplish- 
ment. Artificiality  in  home  processes  is  altogether 
lacking. 

The  family  fireside  is  the  council  chamber  of 


EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  27 

civilization.  In  it  is  represented  the  alertness,  the 
confidence,  the  candor,  and  the  optimism  of  child- 
hood,  the  patience,  the  affection,  and  the  solicitude 
of  parentage.  In  its  archives  are  kept  the  tradi- 
tions and  the  aspirations  of  the  race.  In  its  dicta 
are  found  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  home  should  provide  such  means  of  culture 
and  inspiration  as  are  afforded  by  the  best  in 
books  and  music,  such  recreation  and  amusement 
that  the  attraction  would  be  towards,  and  not 
away  from,  the  family  assembly.  The  child  should 
not  be  forced  to  the  street  for  companionship,  or 
to  public  places  for  entertainment. 
"When  the  state  assumes  the  responsibility  of 

.     ,.»      •  .,       «  ,.          f       ,,      ...  Bhouldnot 

offering  opportunity  for  education  to  all  citizens,  relax  its^ 
/of  selecting  the  teacher,  and  of  prescribing  the  education. 
!  course  of  study,  there  is  danger  that  the  home  may 
relax  its  efforts  and  disclaim  its  responsibility. 
Such  a  possible  catastrophe  should  be  averted. 
There  is  now  no  considerable  opposition  any- 
where to  the  doctrine  of  the  state's  duty  and  re- 
sponsibility in  the  education  of  the  young,  but  in 
any  scheme  of  popular  education  the  home  should 
be  regarded  as  an  important  factor. 

The  School. — The  primary  purpose  of  the  school 
is  to  educate  the  young.  The  general  aims  of  edu- 
cation have  been  already  discussed.    The  institu- 
tions and  conditions  that  educate  in  an  incidental 
manner  may  be  called  informal  agencies,   and  rormaian 
those  organized  or  maintained  expressly  for  edu-  S£3S?  ai«. 
cational  purposes  may  be  called  formal  agencies, 
In  the  former  class  may  be  placed  the  vocations, 


28 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  school 

must 

supplement 
informal 
education. 


The  duty  of 
the  State. 


clubs,  societies,  associations,  etc.    The  principal 
agency  of  the  latter  class  is  the  school. 

Informal  education  is  irregular,  incidental, 
unsystematic.  Formal  education  is  organized, 
methodical  and  definite  in  its  aims.  It  is  the 
province  of  the  school  to  provide  proper  environ- 
ment instead  of  depending  upon  chance  or  acci- 
dental experience,  to  co-ordinate  all  the  best  proc- 
esses of  education,  to  apply  principles  rather  than 
devices  and,  in  the  formation  of  its  plans  and  its 
methods,  to  look  to  the  future  rather  than  to  the 
immediate  present. 

The  school  must  provide  that  which  the  home 
and  the  other  agencies  are  unable  to  furnish. 
Wherever  there  exists  a  deficiency,  the  school 
must  supply  the  necessary  supplementation. 
Neither  the  home  nor  the  workshop  is  able  in  a 
complex  civilization  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  child 
and  its  development  as  adequately  as  it  does  in  a 
less  developed  state  of  society.  To  satisfy  these 
urgent  needs  a  specially  organized  institution  is 
indispensable,  an  institution  whose  grasp  includes 
all  the  elements  of  education,  and  whose  horizon 
comprehends  all  phases  of  society. 

The  Vocation. — The  fundamental  principle  of 
the  vocation  as  an  educational  agency  is  the  inter- 
dependence and  necessary  co-operation  of  all  men 
in  their  several  vocations.  Skill  is  rendered  pos- 
sible by  division  of  labor,  allowing  a  specialization 
in  particular  lines  of  endeavor,  thus  securing 
expert  and  efficient  service  of  numerous  kinds. 

The  State. — The  state  as  an  educational  agency 
protects  man  in  the  choice  and  use  of  his  environ- 


EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  29 

ments,  in  the  advantages  gained  through  his  own 
experience,  in  guaranteeing  him  liberty  in  the 
practice  of  his  vocation  and  in  the  enjoyment  of 
the  returns  of  his  productivity.  It  is  the  province 
of  the  state  to  protect  the  home  and  the  vocation, 
to  organize  and  maintain  schools,  and  to  guarantee 
to  the  church  unrestricted  liberty  in  the  exercise 
of  its  prerogatives. 

The  Church. — The  home  deals  primarily  with 
the  relations  of  father  to  son,  brother  to  brother, 
child  to  mother ;  the  school  primarily  with  the  rela- 
tions of  man  to  man;  the^hTirj±_^mmrily  with 
the  relation  of  creature  to  Creator.  The  constant 
aim  of  the  church  is  to  bring  man  into  a  knowledge 
of  his  spiritual  inheritance,  to  win  him  away  from 
the  sordid  and  unclean,  and  to  fix  his  affections 
upon  the  devout  and  righteous."" 

The  basic  ideas  of  the  church  are  love  and 
mercy.  Its  ideals  are  wholly  unselfish.  It  seeks 
to  bring  its  standards  of  conduct  and  its  concep- 
tions  of  life  to  every  one,  regardless  of  station, 
condition,  race  or  nationality.  Its  doctrines  are 
founded  upon  the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the 
brotherhood  of  man.  To  the  processes  of  human 
reasoning  by  which  man  discovers  the  laws  gov- 
erning the  forces  of  nature,  it  adds  faith,  the  be- 
lief in  God  and  spiritual  influences  that  are  not 
comprehensible  by  the  application  of  ordinary 
inductive  and  deductive  processes. 

The  church  sends  its  missionary  to  all  mankind. 
He  goes  without  arms;  without  civil  authority; 
without  equipment ;  with  only  a  motive  and  a  mes- 
sage. Where  all  the  resources  of  science,  litera- 


30          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

ture,  and  commerce  fail,  he  succeeds.  He  pene- 
trates the  fastnesses  of  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion, and  brings  a  simple  yet  mysterious  message 
to  people  whose  souls  have  been  made  fierce  by 
centuries  of  heredity  from  savage  ancestors,  and 
transforms  their  character.  In  his  wake  schools 
spring  up,  home  and  family  are  created,  and  a 
barbarous  race,  cruel  in  all  its  instincts  and  habits, 
with  crudest  jargon  for  language,  is  civilized,  is 
given  a  written  language  and  a  literature,  and  the 
capacity  for  its  enjoyment. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   SCHOOL 

The  school  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  division  of  labor.  Primitive  man  discov-  Cation 
ered  early  that  economy  and  efficiency  result  from 
specialization.  Just  as  it  was  found  economical 
for  one  man  in  the  community  or  the  tribe  to 
make  shoes  for  all,  and  to  receive  for  his  work 
such  commodities  as  he  needed  and  the  rest  could 
supply,  so  was  it  found  preferable  for  one  to 
teach  the  children  of  all,  while  the  rest  supplied 
his  wants. 

Thus  teaching  as  a  business  originate^  pi  foe 
same  way  as  shoemaking  and  other  trades  and  pro. 
fejgiong^  Because  the  work  of  the  unskilful  and  p£>rct* of 
unintelligent  teacher  causes  a  more  widespread 
and  permanent  injury  than  that  of  the  unskilful 
shoemaker  or  blacksmith,  society  as  a  whole — the 
state — is  gradually  assuming  more  and  more  the 
direction  of  education  and  the  cost  of  its  mainte- 
nance. One  suffers  no  permanent  injury  from  all 
fitting  shoes.  Only  the  individual  that  wears 
them  feels  the  inconvenience  of  unshapely  gar- 
ments; but^  the  evil  effects  of  po^r  tfifliflhinff  fHP* 
felt  by_ society,  by  state,  and  by  posterity.  v  kv^ 

For  a  long  time  social  intercourse  within  the 
family,  the  tribe,  or  the  community  was  the  first 
means  of  education,  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  most 


32 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  school 
the  neces. 
sary  out- 
growth of 
complexity 
of  society. 


The  school 
has  not 
always  "been 
the  leader. 


Progress 

always 

necessary 


important  means.  So  long  as  society  was  quite 
simple,  and  there  was  little  commerce  or  relation 
with,  remote  people,  education  by  this  means  was 
fairly  satisfactory,  but  the  increasing  complexity 
of  society  rendered  it  necessary  from  time  to  time 
to  provide  more  adequate  means  of  formal  educa- 
tion with  special  equipment  and  specially  prepared 
teachers  to  direct  it.  The  school  has  sought  to 
keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  race  as  ex- 
gressed  in  otl^r  matrfofcopg'T  in "tarnimerflfi.  maTni- 
factures,  means  of  travel,  and  forms  of  govern- 
ment. It  has  not  always  led  in  this  progress. 
Many  of  the  reforms  have  been  forced  upon  it. 
Teachers  have  often  been  compelled  to  yield  to 
popular  demand  for  revision  of  courses  of  study, 
changes  in  the  plans  and  purposes  for  which  they 
had  not  made  sufficient  preparation,  and  to  which 
they  were  not  enthusiastically  committed. 

Advances  in  education  have  not  always  been 
as  rapid  as  in  other  lines,  yet  there  has  been  a 
constant  and  steady  growth  in  the  conceptions  of 
what  the  school  ought  to  do  for  the  child.  The 
chief  aim  of  the  school  is  to  make  a  physically, 
mentally,  and  spiritually,  strong  individual,  an  effi- 
cient and  capable  workman,  a  patriotic  and  pro- 
gressive citizen.  Since  these  qualities  and  char- 
acteristics have  had  widely  different  meanings  in 
different  generations,  it  has  followed  that  ideals, 
means,  and  appliances  of  the  school  have  varied 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  even  from  year 
to  year.  What  was  fairly  adequate  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  is  totally  inadequate  for  the 
twentieth. 


THE  SCHOOL  33 

The  school  was  first  concerned  in  those  things 
which  through  carelessness  were  neglected,  or 
from  necessity  ignored  in  the  home.  The  training, 
instruction,  and  course  of  study  at  first  had  no 
reference  whatever  to  domestic  or  business  life. 
It  has  taken  several  hundred  years  to  get  away 
from  the  doctrine  of  the  ancients  that  to  introduce 
into  the  school — into  education — any  matter  that 
could  be  used  in  the  home,  the  workshop,  the  farm 
or  the  market,  belittled  education  and  rendered  it 
common.  The  old  idea  was  that  education  is  a 
privilege,  and  not  a  right ;  tnat  it  is  for  the  jeisure 
class,  and  nof  "foFffe  laBonF^classT'for  the  pafri- 
cian,  and  not  the  plebeian.  It  was  asserted  that 
the  useful  and  the  practical,  those  things  that  per- 
tain to  the  vocation,  except  that  of  the  so-called 
learned  professions,  should  be  learned  in  the 
home,  on  the  street,  and  in  the  apprentice  shop, 
and  not  in  the  school. 

The  school  has  changed  in  order  to  meet  the  "\ 
tremendous  social  changes  that  have  taken  place  / 
within  the  memory  of  even  the  present  generation.  V 

Modern  education  is  for  all;  for  the  common  ?< 


man  as  well  as  for  the  patrician,  for  the  busy  and  regarded  as 

,,        ,       .  ,,  «         .    '      ,  y    ..        arigrhtof 

the  lesiure  man,  the  professional  man  and  the  an  classes 

i  j.i          -i  j  XT.  of  cltiaeni. 

mechanic,  the  rich  and  the  poor. 

The  most  important  and  far  reaching  change 
that  characterizes  the  schools  of  the  present  time 
— the  controlling  and  overshadowing  change,  is 
the  industrial  one.  The  applications  of  science 
resulting  in  numerous  inventions  for  utilizing  the 
forces  of  nature — wind,  water,  steam,  electricity, 
chemical  affinity,  etc.,  the  improved  processes  of 


34 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  greatest 
chang'e  of 
recent  years 
Is  the 
industrial 
demands  of 
education. 


Need  of 
efficient 
men. 


Standards 
for 

measuring* 
the  worth 
of  tlie  man. 


Revolution 
in  all 

departments 
of  life. 


manufacture,  of  preparation  and  conservation  of 
food  stuffs,  the  creation  of  new  commodities,  the 
utilization  of  by-products  that  were  formerly 
regarded  as  waste,  the  opening  of  world-wide 
markets,  the  rapid  means  of  travel,  communication 
and  distribution  of  products — all  have  exerted  a 
prodigious  influence  upon  the  ideals,  means,  and 
processes  of  the  school,  which  has  been  made  to 
feel  that  it  should  prepare  the  child  to  adapt  itself 
to  changed  conditions. 

A  broader  standard  for  the  measurement  of 
man  has  resulted  from  these  social  changes.  There 
is  a  crying  need  for  efficient  men  in  so  many  lines 
of  endeavor,  for  skilled  workmen  in  so  many 
occupations,  that  the  school  has  been  required  to 
fashion  its  instruction  and  alter  its  methods  to 
comply  with  these  demands. 

The  measurement  of  man's  worth  is  determined 
by  a  changed  standard.  The  question,  "What 
does  he  know?"  has  been  changed  to  "What  does 
he  know,  what  can  he  do,  and  what  kind  of  man  is 
he?"  The  world  demands  knowledge,  skill,  and 
character ;  knowledge  of  useful  things,  skill  in  the 
performance  of  important  acts,  character  that 
shows  itself  in  influence,  habits  and  ideals.  At  no 
other  time  in  the  history  of  man  has  there  been 
so  great  a  premium  on  versatile  and  accurate 
knowledge,  efficient  and  rapid  service,  and  charac- 
ter that  is  dependable  and  reliable. 

Professor  Dewey  has  said,  "One  can  hardly 
believe  that  there  has  been  a  revolution  in  all  his- 
tory so  rapid,  so  extensive,  so  complete. 
Even  our  moral  and  religious  ideas  and  interests, 


THE  SCHOOL  35 

the  most  conservative,  because  the  deepest-lying 
things  in  our  nature,  are  profoundly  affected." 

Not  only  what  may  affect  the  child  in  after  life, 
but  what  affects  him  while  in  the  school,  has 
received  the  best  attention  of  scientists.  His 
comfort,  his  health,  and  his  happiness,  have 
received  painstaking  consideration.  The  ques- 
tions  of  school  architecture,  heating,  ventilation, 
lighting,  seating,  and  sanitation  have  been  studied  curriculum, 
by  specialists.  Questions  of  causes  of  disease, 
contagion,  and  infection  have  been  settled  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  bacteriologist,  and  the  conclu- 
sions there  reached  made  public  property  for  the 
benefit  of  the  child. 

Some  changes  in  school  standards  have  resulted 
in  adding  to  the  curriculum  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  the  study  of  plants,  birds,  ani- 
mals, insects,  soils,  with  apparatus  for  play 
grounds,  laboratories,  workshops,  and  school  gar- 
dens, bringing  a  new  interest  to  school  life  and  a 
fuller  meaning  to  elementary  education. 

Physical  education  has  displaced  "calisthen- 
ics",  and  has  been  made  to  apply  to  the  whole 
nurture  of  the  child,  including  his  games,  his  dress, 
his  food,  and  the  intelligent  use  of  the  bathroom 
and  the  toothbrush. 


CHAPTER  V 


Important 
to  have 
school  site 
large 
enough. 


Forethought 
in  selecting* 
•ite  avoids 
future 
expense. 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS   OF  THE   SCHOOL 

Broader  views  of  life,  in  its  manifold  activities, 
have  wrought  a  change  in  the  physical  conditions 
of  the  school.  More  attention  is  being  given  to 
sites,  grounds,  buildings,  furniture,  apparatus, 
hygiene,  and  sanitation. 

The  Site. — The  selection  of  a  school  site  is  a 
matter  of  importance.  The  mistake  has  been  fre- 
quently made  of  providing  too  small  a  site,  result- 
ing in  increased  cost  when  enlargement  became 
necessary.  In  1913,  a  city  of  Texas  paid  $250,000 
for  a  high  school  site  that  ten  years  before  could 
have  been  bought  for  $10,000.  In  1911,  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  the  University  of  Nebraska 
should  abandon  its  site  in  the  City  of  Lincoln,  and 
remove  to  a  tract  of  land  two  miles  away  from  the 
city,  or  should  enlarge  its  present  campus  by  the 
purchase  of  adjoining  property,  was  left  to  popu- 
lar vote.  The  decision  was  to  acquire  additional 
grounds  in  the  city.  The  University  then  pur. 
chased,  at  a  cost  of  $300,000  to  the  state,  six  blocks 
of  city  property  that  could  have  been  secured 
when  the  University  was  founded  for  $3,000  to 
$6,000.  Eural  communities  make  similar  mis- 
takes, building  the  schools  on  plots  of  ground 
entirely  too  small  for  school  purposes,  failing  to 
provide  facilities  for  playground  activities. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  37 

In  selecting  a  site,  several  features  should  be 
considered.  The  school  should  be  located  on  high 
ground  that  is  naturally  dry  and  easily  drained. 
It  should  be  away  from  objectionable  noises  of  the 
street,  the  shop,  or  manufactory,  and  away  from 
unsanitary  surroundings.  In  cities  the  site  should 
be  ample  for  playgrounds,  walks,  flowers,  .shrub- 
bery, and,  when  at  all  possible,  a  school  garden. 
In  rural  communities  at  least  one  acre,  and  pref- 
erably four  or  five  acres,  should  be  secured.  For 
a  small  school  of  not  more  than  twenty  to  thirty 
pupils,  the  minimum  should  be  half  an  acre,  but 
provision  should  be  made  for  possible  increase  in 
the  number  of  pupils ;  hence  at  least  an  acre  for  a 
rural  school  should  be  insisted  upon.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  abridge  the  freedom  of  the  children 
during  their  hours  of  recreation  on  a  small  and 
undeveloped  plot  of  ground. 

The  Grounds. — The  grounds  for  any  school,  in 
addition  to  abundant  room  for  physical  activities, 
should  have  also  enough  reserved  for  purely  orna- 
mental purposes.  That  part  devoted  to  games 
should  be  made  available  for  the  purpose.  It 
should  be  well  graded,  made  smooth;  all  stumps, 
and  stones  removed,  and  necessary  appliances  for 
games  of  ball,  tennis,  etc.,  provided.  Play  is  now 
conceded  to  be  one  of  the  important  agencies  in 
education.  All  the  grounds  should  be  made  attrac- 
tive. Small  expenditure  of  money  for  material 
and  for  the  direction  of  the  pupils  in  cultivation 
is  most  wisely  spent.  Valuable  information  con- 
cerning plant  life  is  thus  given,  and  in  no  other 
way  may  such  profitable  work  be  done  in  cultivat- 


38 


PRINCIPLES  AKD  PROCESSES 


C-rounds 

should 

not  be 

abandoned 

during1 

vacation. 


Community 
pride  in 
in  site 
and 
grounds. 


Definite 
plans  for 
building's 
advisable. 


ing  the  aesthetic  at  so  little  outlay  of  time  and 
money.  What  is  learned  at  school  about  beauti- 
fication  of  premises  will  soon  be  reflected  in  the 
homes  of  the  children,  and  if  the  results  are  not 
immediately  evident,  the  next  generation  will  reap 
the  reward. 

The  short  term  of  the  rural  school,  the  utter 
abandonment  of  the  property  when  the  buildings 
and  grounds  are  used  only  for  the  purposes  of 
instruction,  and  the  frequent  changes  of  teachers 
and  school  boards,  operate  harmfully  against 
improvement  and  preservation  of  the  grounds  and 
buildings. 

The  teacher,  though  his  stay  in  a  neighborhood 
be  short,  can  do  an  important  work  in  awakening 
in  the  community  a  pride  in  the  school  property, 
and  an  interest  sufficient  to  secure  the  employment 
of  some  one  as  keeper  of  the  premises  during  vaca- 
tion. 

In  the  country  a  mistake  is  frequently  made  in 
locating  the  school  too  remote  from  a  dwelling. 
Such  a  location  invites  trespass  and  vandalism. 

A  well  aroused  community  pride  in  the  school 
premises  would  have  a  wholesome  effect  in  doing 
away  with  the  unglazed,  unpainted  house,  amid 
rough,  uneven,  treeless,  barren,  cheerless  grounds, 
cramped  in  an  isolated  corner  of  the  roadside, 
"like  a  ragged  beggar  sunning." 

The  Buildings. — The  present  ideal  school  build- 
ing is  simple  and  expressive  of  the  serious  but 
hopeful  purpose  for  which  it  exists.  Sometimes 
good  taste  is  violated  both  in  buildings  and 
grounds  by  over-ornamentation  from  the  use  of 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  39 

too  elaborate  design,  by  lack  of  harmony  in  color 
schemes.  The  fee  paid  a  competent  architect  to 
plan  the  school  building  is  money  well  invested. 
Several  universities  and  normal  schools  have 
given  special  attention  to  problems  relating  to  the 
construction  and  equipment  of  school  buildings, 
and  they  are  glad  to  render  to  communities  gratu- 
itous service  on  request. 

The  Department  of  Education  in  each  of  several 
states  is  rendering  valuable  service  to  the  state  in 
furnishing  without  charge  plans  and  specifications  Plans- 
applicable  to  any  desired  expenditure. 

Urban  communities  have  within  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  made  great  improvement  in  their 
school  buildings.  Quite  frequently  now  the  school 
house  is  the  most  attractive  and  pretentious  build- 
ing in  the  town.  Eural  communities  are,  as  a  rule, 
still  behind  in  this  particular ;  but  in  some  sections, 
however,  an  awakening  interest  is  manifest,  the 
results  of  intelligent  interest  and  effort,  becoming 
more  and  more  patent.  In  many  places  yet,  how- 
ever, the  type  of  the  "old  red  school  house"  with 
"four  walls,  a  roof,  and  a  floor",  still  abides. 

Expert  thought  has  been  directed  to  the  size, 
shape  and  general  plan  of  the  school-room.  It  is 
commonly  agreed  that  in  cities,  where  floor  space 
is  expensive,  a  room  28  by  32  feet  is  a  con- 
venient and  appropriate  size,  and  that  the  mini- 
mum height  (from  floor  to  ceiling)  is  13  feet  for 
the  first  story  and  12  feet  for  the  second.  Such  a 
room  would  afford  seating  space  for  fifty  pupils, 
with  allowance  for  necessary  vacant  spaces,  and 
furnish  200  cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  pupil,  an 


40  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

amount  which  is  considered  sufficient  under  nor- 
mal conditions  of  ventilation. 

Better  acoustic  properties  are  secured  by  hav- 
ing a  rectangular  room,  whose  sides  are  in  the 
ratio  of  5  to  6.  Cramped  quarters  either  on  the 
playground  or  in  the  school-room,  are  detrimental 
to  health,  good  order,  and  good  work.  While  it  is 
needless  to  advise  against  making  the  school-room 
too  large,  enough  space  is  all  that  is  desirable, 
especially  in  cold  weather,  as  the  larger  the  room, 
the  less  easily  it  is  heated, 
position  of  Blackboards  should  be  placed  on  all  wall  space 

blackboard*         .,,  n        i  -111  i        • 

andproper  m  the  school-room  unoccupied  by  doors  and  win- 
dows. Natural  slate  is  the  best  kind  of  board 
and,  considered  as  to  durability,  the  cheapest  in 
the  end.  But  there  are  some  excellent  substitutes 
for  the  natural  slate.  A  good  article  of  what  is 
known  as  slated  cloth,  if  properly  fastened  to  a 
perfectly  smooth  wall,  makes  a  fine  writing  sur- 
face for  several  terms.  Blackboards  should  be 
3%  to  4  feet  in  width.  For  pupils  in  the  primary 
grades  it  should  be  placed  2  feet  or  2y2  feet  from 
the  floor;  for  pupils  in  the  high  school  3  feet  to 
3y2  feet  from  the  floor.  The  boards  should  at  all 
times  present  a  smooth  surface,  well  cemented  at 
joints,  and  of  uniform  color.  Boards  other  than 
natural  slate  should  be  repaired,  repainted,  or 
removed  promptly  when  they  become  rough  or 
discolored.  Black  is  in  strongest  contrast  to  the 
crayon  work,  and  is,  therefore,  preferable, 
although  dark  green  is  preferred  by  some ;  its  rest- 
ful effect  on  the  eyes,  in  their  opinion,  more  than 
offsetting  the  disadvantage  of  its  color.  Chalk 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  41 

troughs  should  be  placed  just  beneath  the  boards, 
and  should  have  a  hinged  wire  covering,  so  that 
students  using  the  boards  do  not  disturb  the  accu- 
mulated dust. 

Light. — All  authorities  agree  that  the  arrange- 
ment  of  the  seats  should  bring  the  light  from  the 
left  side  and  the  rear.  This  arrangement  avoids 
the  shadow  of  the  hand,  as  the  pupil  sits  with  the 
right  side  to  the  desk.  The  more  completely  the 
left  side  of  the  room  is  filled  with  glass,  the  bet- 
ter, the  windows  extending  from  within  three  feet 
of  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  room.  The  amount 
of  light  admitted  into  the  room  should  be  reg- 
ulated by  shades  of  a  greenish  tint.  The  shades 
should  be  adjustable,  that  is,  so  they  may  be  low- 
ered from  the  top  or  raised  from  the  bottom. 
Shades  that  can  be  raised  only  from  the  bottom 
render  it  difficult  to  lower  the  upper  sash  of  the 
window  for  ventilation. 

Furniture.— The  best  furniture  is  the  single  ad- 
adjustable  desk  and  chair.  Single  desks  are  to  be 
preferred  to  double  desks  for  both  hygienic  and 
disciplinary  reasons.  Both  the  desk  and  the  chair 
should  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  individual  child. 
When  adjustable  furniture  is  used,  the  adjustment 
should  be  made  properly.  Definite  directions  are 
usually  furnished  by  the  manufacturer. 

In  case  adjustable  furniture  is  not  provided, 
three  sizes  of  desks  should  be  used,  those  for  the 
smaller  children  being  placed  in  front. 

Every  school  building  should  be  provided  with 
cloak-rooms,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  they 
are  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Each  child  should 


42 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Problems 
of  heating 
and 
ventilation. 


Correct 
temperature 
for  the 
schoolroom. 


The 

Jacketed 
stove. 


have  a  separate  locker,  with  shelves  for  lunch  bas- 
kets, rubbers,  and  other  objects. 

Heating  and  Ventilation. — One  of  the  most  im- 
important  problems  of  the  school  is  that  of  heat- 
ing and  ventilation.  Until  recent  years,  compara- 
tively little  attention  was  paid  to  the  problem, 
especially  as  it  relates  to  school  houses.  Lately, 
however,  it  has  engaged  expert  attention  and  in- 
vestigation. Now,  scarcely  any  municipality  per- 
mits the  construction  of  a  school  building  or  other 
public  meeting  place  without  compliance  with 
the  specifications  of  some  one  of  several  modern 
systems. 

Proper  ventilation  requires  that  fresh  air  be 
brought  in  from  without,  heated  to  the  proper  tem- 
perature (64  deg.  to  70  deg.  Fahrenheit),  and  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  room,  and  the  vitiated  air 
removed.  There  must  be  separate  vents  both  for 
fresh  air  and  foul  air  in  each  room.  There  are 
several  adequate  systems  now  in  use  in  different 
cities  of  the  country,  but  their  discussion  would 
require  so  much  technical  detail  that  it  is  not  here 
attempted. 

One  of  the  simplest  systems,  now  gaining  in 
popularity  on  account  of  its  applicability  to  small 
schools,  is  that  of  the  "jacketed  stove".  The  stove 
is  enclosed  with  an  iron  "jacket"  six  feet  high, 
extending  from  the  floor,  and  leaving  a  distance  of 
two  feet  between  the  jacket  and  the  stove.  A  con- 
duit or  vent  for  fresh  air  leads  from  the  outside 
to  a  point  beneath  the  stove,  admitting  fresh  air 
which,  being  heated,  rises  to  the  ceiling  and  thence 
distributes  itself  throughout  the  room.  On  the 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  43 

opposite  side  of  the  room  is  a  ventilating  duct, 
connecting  with  the  flue  from  the  stove,  through 
which  the  vitiated  air  is  discharged. 


CHAPTEE  VI 


Specific 
aim  of 
education. 


Knowledge. 


Valuable 
knowledge. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  school  is  established  primarily  for  the 
child.  Its  chief  function  is  the  education  of  the 
young.  All  the  specific  aims  of  education  may  be 
roughly  classified  under  the  three  heads  of  phyi- 
cal,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  education.  Again, 
the  main  object  of  intellectual  education  (as  stated 
in  a  preceding  chapter  may  be  said  to  consist  of 
acquiring  knowledge,  power,  and  skill. 

These  aims  exert  a  determining  influence  upon 
the  organization  of  courses  of  study,  methods  of 
instruction,  and  modes  of  government. 

Acquisition  of  Knowledge. — Knowledge,  it 
should  be  remembered,  does  not  consist  of  the 
mere  accumulation  of  masses  of  unrelated  facts, 
for  many  facts  are,  in  themselves,  utterly  worth- 
less. Knowledge,  so  far  as  it  constitutes  one  of 
the  purposes  of  instruction,  consists  of  vital  facts 
and  experiences  connected  by  logical  relations,  so 
classified,  arranged  and  organized  that  they 
become  means  for  the  acquisition  of  additional 
knowledge,  or  of  direction  in  the  discharge  of  du- 
ties and  responsibilities. 

Not  all  knowledge,  once  acquired,  is  permanent- 
ly retained,  at  least  in  a  form  that  is  serviceable. 
Much  that  we  learn  is  unavoidably  forgotten. 
Therefore,  if  knowledge  were  the  chief  goal  of 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  45 

instruction,  much  of  the  time  consumed  in  its 
acquisition  is  wasted.  But  if,  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  one  has  developed  a  love  for  the  right 
kind  of  facts,  and  has  learned  to  organize  these 
into  forms  rendering  them  serviceable  to  the  life 
of  the  individual  and  to  society,  the  time  is  not 
wasted. 

Gaining  Power.  —  Knowledge  may  be  the  recol-  power 
lection  of  how  a  certain  problem  or  how  a  certain 
class  of  problems  was  solved,  but  the  ability  to 
solve  new  and  unusual  problems,  as  they  present 
themselves,  implies  training  and  discipline.  This 
is  power. 

The  same  problem,  unchanged  and  unmodified, 
seldom  presents  itself  twice  in  a  life-time,  there- 
fore, one  who  would  depend  upon  memory,  that  is 
upon  facts,  alone,  would  often  meet  confusion  and 
defeat. 

Attainment  of  Skill.  —  Skill  implies  intelligent 
practice.  It  involves  experience  obtained  under 
competent  and  watchful  direction,  training  under 
expert  supervision.  Skill  means  accuracy,  rapid- 
ity, and  proficiency. 

Character.  —  The  supreme  end  of  all  instruction 


is  character.     In  its  broadest  sense,  character  test  of 
includes  knowledge,  power  and  skill,  but  it  is  more  ofetX 
concerned  in  what  the  child  is  trained  to  be  than  * 
what  it  is  taught  to  'know  or  drilled  to  do.  Charac- 
ter includes  habit,  but  it  relies  for  its  fuller  mean- 
ing upon  such  qualities  as  probity,  integrity,  pur- 
ity, and  incorruptibility.     Character  is  the  final 
test  of  the  worth  of  the  processes  of  the  school. 
It  is  the  court  of  last  resort  by  which  the  claims 


46 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Progress 
of  schools 
less  than 
in  other 

activities. 


of  the  school  upon  popular  approval  must  be 
decided. 

The  fact  that  many  who  have  passed  regularly 
through  the  grades  of  the  common  school,  the  high 
school,  and  have  finally  received  a  degree  from 
the  university,  have  failed  when  submitted  to  the 
supreme  test,  has  been  cited  as  proof  that  our 
schools  are  not  faithful  to  their  trust.  Indict- 
ments of  modern  education  are  common.  A  dis- 
tinguished educator  a  few  years  ago  said,  "We 
all  know  that  the  children  of  the  last  two  decades 
have  not  been  educated.  With  all  our  training, 
we  have  trained  nobody.  With  all  our  instructing 
we  have  instructed  nobody". 

Now,  indictments  against  customs,  and  institu- 
tions are  nearly  always  purposely  exaggerated, 
for  the  reason  that  public  attention  is  attracted  by 
harsh  and  startling  expressions.  Eobbed  of 
extravagance,  and  reduced  to  commonplace  lan- 
guage, the  arraignment  would  mean  that  the  effi- 
ciency of  our  schools  has  not  of  late  years  justified 
the  amount  spent  upon  them.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  many  people  feel  that  the  schools  of  the  pres- 
ent time  are  failing  to  meet  the  demands  upon 
them;  that  in  all  their  progress  they  have  not 
increased  in  efficiency  as  rapidly  as  other  institu- 
tions; and  that  the  processes  of  modern  educa- 
tion, compared  with  new  methods  of  travel,  manu- 
facture, practice  of  medicine,  printing,  photog- 
raphy, and  many  other  vocations,  fail  to  measure 
up  to  the  average  standard  of  improvement. 

Hardly  any  student  of  education  would 
seriously  assert  that  the  schools  of  to-day  are  less 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  47 

efficient  than  those  of  the  past.  What  is  meant, 
then,  by  these  complaints  is  that  our  schools  have 
grown  relatively  less  efficient,  when  the  increased 
demands  of  the  present  time  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration.  The  present  system  of  education  relative. 
would  have  met  the  demands  of  any  previous 
decade  better  than  the  system  of  that  decade  met 
them,  but  their  efficiency  has  not  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  their  responsibility. 

In  considering  this  question,  it  should  be  noted 
that  much  of  the  work  heretofore  performed  by 
other  institutions  has  been  unloaded  upon  the 


schools.    Parental  authority  is  admitted  by  all  to  fcy  informal 
have   relaxed.    The  home  has  well  nigh  trans-  a 
ferred  its  responsibility  for  the  entire  education 
of  the  child  to  the  school.    The  apprentice  shop  is 
closed.    Various  specialized  types   of  education, 
the  vocational  and  the  industrial,  with  their  new 
problems,  have  but  recently  presented  themselves. 
Congested  centers  of  population  have  developed 
new  educational  needs,  as  playgrounds,  gymnas- 
iums, and  school  gardens. 

Of  all  institutions  upon  which  the  race  is  depen- 
dent for  education  —  either  formal  or  informal  — 
it  is  the  school  that  must  undertake  what  the 
others  leave  undone;  must  attempt  what  the 
others  are  either  unwilling  or  unable  to  perform. 
In  this  time  of  radical  social  and  commercial 
changes,  and  of  intense  industrialism,  when 
scarcely  a  week  passes  that  some  process  or  some 
instrumentality  in  manufacture  does  not  become 
antiquated  and  ideals  of  living  obsolete,  the  real 
advances  made  by  the  school,  in  its  attempt  to 


48 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Education 
does  not 
terminate 
with  the 
child. 


The  social 
center 

movement. 


maintain  its  stability  amid  the  tempests,  and  to 
save  the  best  from  the  wreckage,  are  slow  to  be 
recognized  and  acknowledged. 

Earnest  students  of  education  are  now  agreed 
that  the  responsibility  of  the  school  to  society  or 
the  state  does  not  terminate  with  the  child.  The 
changes  in  social  and  economic  conditions,  varying 
almost  with  each  new  moon,  find  the  young  man 
who  has  left  school  at  twenty-one,  fairly  well  pre- 
pared for  the  demands  of  that  time,  unprepared 
for  the  conditions  that  confront  him  at  thirty-five. 
It  is  true  that  social  intercourse,  the  daily  press, 
the  public  library,  the  court  room,  the  pulpit,  and 
other  informal  educational  agencies  contribute 
much  to  the  enlightenment  of  the  public,  but  these 
institutions  are  not  dependable  for  the  continuous 
education  of  the  individual. 

A  physician  whose  patronage  had  nearly  de- 
serted him,  in  consequence  of  his  professional 
inertia,  was  asked  why  he  did  not  attend  occa- 
sionally some  medical  school,  in  order  to  keep 
abreast  of  the  times,  when  he  replied:  "Why,  I 
haven't  'practiced  up'  what  I  learned  in  college 
yet."  This  doctor  has  not  discovered  that  many 
of  the  theories  and  remedies  that  he  learned  in 
college  have  long  since  been  abandoned  by  well 
informed  physicians,  and  are  no  longer  "prac- 
ticed" at  all.  It  is  now  universally  recognized 
that  the  lawyer,  the  physician,  the  teacher,  or 
other  professional  man,  must  continue  his  studies 
as  long  as  he  practices. 

Continuous  Education. — There  is  a  widespread 
demand  that  the  school  assume  the  responsibility 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  49 

of  continuous  education  of  the  individuals  of  all 
classes  and  all  ages.  This  demand  cannot  be 
ignored.  The  task  involves  the  affiliation,  corre- 
lation and  direction  of  all  informal  educational 
agencies  of  the  community.  It  must  bring 
together  for  mutual  helpfulness  individuals  of  all 
ages,  creeds,  and  vocations,  and  secure  the 
organized  and  sympathetic  co-operation  of  all 
forces  of  the  community.  This  new  movement  is 
already  accomplishing  much  good  in  many  places. 
It  makes  the  school  house  a  social  center. 

Socially  and  religiously,  men  divide  themselves 
into  groups.  In  doing  this  they  are  seeking  social 
intercourse  and  co-operation.  The  church  adds  the  social 
social  opportunities  to  its  spiritual  work,  but  the  ° 
church  house  of  one  sect  can  not  be  used  as  a  meet- 
ing place  for  the  community.  Denominational 
lines  are  more  or  less  closely  drawn,  and  the 
church  building  is  not  the  property  of  the  com- 
munity. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  meeting 
places  of  the  lodges,  clubs,  societies,  and  frater- 
nities. Their  rooms  do  not  belong  to  the  general 
public,  and  their  aims  do  not  appeal  alike  to  all 
the  people.  The  school  draws  no  lines  that  ex- 
clude. The  building  is  the  property  of  the  com- 
munity, and  is,  therefore,  the  logical  meeting  place 
of  all  the  people  engaged  in  a  common  purpose. 

The  extension  work  now  prosecuted  by  many  of 
the  institutions  of  higher  education  is  an  effort  work, 
to  bring  the  advantages  of  education,  or  at  least 
its  modern  ideals  to  the  people  at  large,  to  effect 
a  mutual  understanding  for  the  benefit,  both  of 
the  people  and  the  institution.  The  faculties  of 


50  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

educational  institutions  need  to  understand  the 
conditions  in  the  country,  the  point  of  view  of 
their  supporters,  the  needs  of  their  constituencies, 
so  that  the  aims  of  the  institution  may  be  better 
adjusted  to  the  solution  of  the  problems,  both 
social  and  educational,  as  they  are  found  by  actual 
contact  with  the  people. 

What  is  expedient  for  the  university  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  people  of  the  state  is  profitable  to  the 
school  in  its  relation  to  the  citizens  of  the  com- 
munity. A  full  discussion  of  the  different  phases 
of  the  social  center  can  not  be  here  undertaken, 
but  some  of  its  purposes  and  its  opportunities 
should  have  brief  mention. 

cooperation  ^  *s  ^e^eve(i  ^7  many  that  the  movement  to 
bring  into  closer  relations  for  purposes  of  uni- 
versal improvement  all  classes  of  citizens  can  be 
made  to  exert  a  tremendous  influence  upon  general 
and  continuous  education.  The  lawyers  have  their 
bar  associations,  physicians  their  clinics,  teachers 
their  institutes,  farmers  their  congresses,  bankers, 
merchants — all  vocations — have  regular  confer- 
ences, each  organized  and  conducted  for  the  edu- 
cation of  a  particular  class.  The  topics  of  dis- 
cussion in  these  conventions  are  largely  special 
and  technical.  The  valuable  work  done  in  this 
manner  needs  the  supplementation  of  a  general 
conference  in  each  community  where  the  subjects 
of  discussion  appeal  to  all  classes.  Periodical 
conferences  unify  all  community  interests,  beget 
a  better  understanding  among  the  teachers,  par- 
ents, business  and  professional  men,  cultivate 
community  pride,  lead  to  the  construction  of  bet- 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  51 

ter  school  buildings,  better  dwellings,  and  better 
roads,  provide  wholesome  entertainment  in  rural 
districts,  and  make  the  school  house  serviceable 
during  the  entire  year. 

It  provides  a  meeting  place  for  the  old  and  the 
young,  where  questions  of  vital  and  common  inter-  social  center. 
est  are  studied  with  definite  purpose — principles 
of  hygiene,  sanitation,  music,  art,  literature,  agri- 
culture, horticulture — anything  and  everything 
that  pertains  to  education.  It  brings  the  school, 
its  course  of  study,  and  its  processes  of  education 
into  closer  relations  with  the  home  and  all  the 
other  interests  of  the  community,  and  secures  har- 
monious action  from  discordant  elements. 

In  this  community  work  the  teacher  must  be 
capable  of  planning,  directing,  and  executing,  but 
he  must  call  to  his  assistance  every  interest  and 
activity  in  the  community.  Beyond  question  the 
free,  open  and  frequent  discussion  of  community 
problems  is  the  quickest  way  to  secure  their  solu- 
tion, and  the  surest  way  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
the  entire  citizenship.  By  no  other  means  can  a 
better  understanding  of  community  needs  be 
obtained.  Communities  are  backward  in  provid- 
ing educational  facilities  because  the  necessity  for 
their  improvement  has  not  been  demonstrated. 
Teachers  and  "educational  missionaries"  often 
blunder  grieviously  in  their  efforts  to  "arouse 
educational  interest."  It  is  not  in  good  taste  to 
accuse  the  parent  of  indifference  to  the  welfare 
of  the  child  because  (in  the  language  of  the  ac- 
cuser) he  gives  more  attention  to  methods  of 
improving  the  breed  of  the  hogs  than  to  the  proc- 


52  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

esses  of  cultivating  the  mind  of  the  child.  He 
indifferent  invests  in  the  hog  because  he  has  found  that  the 
welfare  investment  pays.  Convince  him  that  investment 

children.  in  the  school  makes  his  child  happier,  wiser,  and 
better,  give  him  a  practical  demonstration  that  he 
can  comprehend,  and  his  purse  is  opened  unstint- 
ingly.  The  average  man,  if  he  is  niggardly  in 
responding  to  the  calls  of  the  school,  is  so  because 
of  his  distrust  of  it.  He  is  not  heedless  of  the 
future  of  the  child;  his  apparent  lack  of  interest 
is  but  the  expression  of  his  lack  of  confidence. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    COURSE   OF   STUDY 

The  real  purpose  of  a  course  of  study,  its  scope, 
and  its  content,  are  questions  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary moment.  There  are  few  other  matters  in 
which  the  teacher  may  so  seriously  blunder.  Many 
mistakes  made  by  the  teacher  may  right  them- 
selves in  process  of  time,  but  a  blunder  in  planning 
the  work  by  which  he  aims  to  build  the  character 
of  the  pupil  is  well  nigh  irreparable. 

Every  school  should  have  a  definite  course  of 
study,  leading  to  a  determinate  goal,  easily  com- 
prehended  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupil.  Vague, 
hazy  notions  are  always  harmful. 

It  is  necessary  that  in  every  school,  whether 
the  elementary  school  or  the  university,  there  be 
a  competent  authority  to  direct  the  curriculum,  to 
understand  it  in  all  its  details,  to  know  how  to  cor- 
relate  its  various  parts,  to  co-ordinate  each  grade  curriculum, 
to  those  above  and  below,  each  class  to  the  pre- 
ceding and  succeeding  classes,  or  each  department 
to  all  other  departments,  to  guard  the  interest 
of  the  pupil,  and  to  see  that  a  "  balanced  mental 
ration"  is  provided.  The*rade 

The  teacher  of  any  grade  should  have  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  work  of  all  the  other 
grades ;  his  own  whereabouts  in  the  entire  proces- 
sion  should  be  a  matter  of  unqualified  certainty. 


54 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The 

curriculum 
should  "be 
chang-ed 
only  for 
good  cause. 


Factory 
methods 
not  applic- 
able to  the 
school. 


Piece  work. 


The  teacher  of  English  in  the  high  school  or  the 
college  should  be  familiar  with  the  scope  of  work 
done  in  mathematics.  The  department  of  chemis- 
try ought  not  to  be  ignorant  of  the  efforts  of  the 
department  of  Latin,  or  out  of  sympathy  with  its 
ideals. 

A  course  of  study,  once  constructed,  should  not 
be  changed  by  the  whims  and  caprices  of  the 
teacher.  Every  course  of  study  is  as  progressive 
as  the  civilization  of  the  race,  but  modification  of 
a  rational  course  should  be  permitted  only  when 
alterations  are  in  the  line  of  progress.  The  injec- 
tion of  foreign  matter,  accidentally  picked  up  by 
the  teacher  while  attending  a  summer  school,  fre- 
quently mars  the  symmetry  of  a  course,  merely  to 
gratify  the  vanity  of  a  teacher  who  wishes  to 
"practice  up"  what  he  has  learned. 

Still,  factory  methods  are  not  applicable  to  the 
school.  In  factories,  each  operator  is  concerned 
only  in  his  part  of  the  work.  Often,  the  crafts- 
man, the  most  skilful  in  the  performance  of  his 
specific  task,  the  most  artistic  in  finishing  his  piece 
of  the  machine,  whose  work  makes  the  fewest  mis- 
fits, and  who  has  the  fewest  "  discards ",  does  not 
know  to  what  purpose  his  piece  is  to  be  used.  A 
few  mechanics  follow  their  pieces  until  they  be- 
come a  part  of  the  complete  machine,  see  them  in 
their  final  setting,  understand  their  relations  to 
other  pieces,  and  comprehend  the  mechanism  as  a 
whole.  From  this  few  are'  chosen  managers, 
directors,  and  superintendents. 

But  in  the  factory  the  workman,  no  matter  how 
skilful  or  intelligent,  is  not  allowed  to  deviate 


THE   COURSE  OF   STUDY  55 

from  the  pattern  assigned  him.  This  pattern 
must  be  produced  in  minutest  detail.  Any  change 
in  the  part  from  the  pattern  renders  it  unfit.  Any 
change  or  improvement  in  the  pattern  requires 
corresponding  changes  in  the  pattern  for  all  other 
parts,  leading  to  the  construction  of  a  new  type 
of  machine.  The  intelligent  workman,  who  looks 
beyond  his  piece,  may  suggest  complete  modifica- 
tion of  the  entire  machine.  When  he  does  this, 
he  is  no  longer  a  "piece  man".  The  piece  man 
is  narrow  in  his  sphere  of  work.  His  operations 
are  mechanical.  He  is  fettered,  muzzled,  sup- 
pressed. 

The  teacher  should  not  be  shackled  by  inflexible 
restrictions,  and  restrained  within  the  narrow 
confines  of  piece  work.  While  conforming  to  ?o?iniSa. y 
established  plans  and  purposes  of  the  course  of 
study,  he  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  full  play 
of  his  best  energies  and  inspirations.  The  teacher 
in  all  positions  should  have  a  broad  outlook  and 
comprehensive  insight  into  the  whole  school. 
Among  pupils  there  are  no  two  "  pieces "  alike, 
therefore,  the  teacher  should  be  freed  from  the 
severe  limitations  imposed  upon  the  artisan  and, 
within  reasonable  limits,  be  allowed  the  free  hand 
of  the  artist.  As  Dutton  says,  "The  teacher  must 
be  quite  unhampered,  and  the  results  he  seeks 
must  not  be  quantitative,  but  qualitative. ' ' 

In   organizing   a   school    system,    adopting   a          rof 
course  of  study,  selecting  text  books,  grading  the 
schools,  classifying  the  pupils,  determining  the 
scope  of  work  for  each  grade  for  the  term  and  for 
the  current  month,  there  is  always  danger  of  mak- 


56 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Coursei  in 
the  lower 
schools 
determined 
"by  the 

higher  in  stl- 
tutions. 


Old  view 
of  liberal 
education. 


The 

doctrine  of 

formal 

dicipllne. 


ing  everything  too  mechanical,  of  making  "piece 
men"  of  the  teachers,  of  discouraging  initiative, 
and  suppressing  individuality.  The  child jj^neyer 
$.  P^ce  of  a  machine  or  a  cog  in  a  wheel.  One  of 
t£e_justest^riti(gsms  of  the  school  processes  of 
today  is  that  they  are  too  mechanical — too  mech- 
anical in  method,  in  discipline,  in  instruction,  in 
testing  results,  and  in  the  promotion  of  pupils. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  common  schools  has 
always  been  a  reflection  of  that  of  the  higher  insti- 
tutions. Up  to  within  the  latter  half  of  the  last 
century  the  trend  of  all  higher  education  was 
toward  the  preparation  for  the  learned  profes- 
sions or  for  the  pleasure  and  the  polish  of  the 
leisure  class.  A  liberal  education  was  regarded 
as  something  appropriate  to  the  free.  The  deriva- 
tion of  the  word  liberal  (liber,  free)  indicates  what 
the  conception  of  education  used  to  be.  It  was 
intended  for  those  who  were  free  from  the  neces- 
sity of  earning  a  livelihood;  for  men  of  leisure; 
for  a  class  to  whom  time  was  not  valuable.  The 
course  of  study  was  made  to  include  only  what 
was  deemed  suitable  for  polite  society,  for  the 
drawing-rooms  of  the  aristocracy. 

Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline.— The  course  of 
study  was  also  dominated  by  the  doctrine  of  for- 
mal, or  general,  discipline.  The  prevalent  belief 
was  that  the  effects  of  training  are  general,  that 
is,  whatever  is  gained  by  one  organ  is  transmitted 
to  the  other  organs;  that  the  cultivation  of  one 
faculty  results  in  the  cultivation  of  all  the  facul- 
ties. Those  not  subscribing  to  the  doctrine  in  its 
most  rigorous  claims,  who  regarded  the  mind  not 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  57 

as  an  entity,  but  as  composed  of  separate  and  in- 
dependent faculties,  maintained  that  whatever 
develops  a  faculty  of  the  mind  in  a  particular  sit- 
uation makes  that  faculty  more  efficient  in  all 
situations ;  that  the  chief  function  of  education  is 
to  gain  strength,  upon  the  theory  that  this 
strength  could  then  be  applied  in  any  direction. 
For  example,  that  the  power  gained  in  mastering 
mathematical  problems  or  in  construing  a  foreign 
language  furnishes  power  for  the  solution  of 
problems  in  physics  and  chemistry,  and  even  for 
the  more  concrete  problems  of  the  home,  the  farm, 
or  the  market  place. 

The  doctrine  of  general  discipline,  as  advocated 
for  centuries,  is  being  abandoned.    Careful  inves-  discipline 
tigations  and  experiments  by  competent  psychol-  aS5Sum»o. 
ogists  seem  to  have  demonstrated  beyond  contro- 
versy that  there  is  no  general  power  of  the  mind. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  general  discipline, 
the  content  of  a  course  of  study  is  of  little  impor- 
tance. It  matters  little  whether  the  knowledge 
acquired  is  retained,  but  the  effort  put  forth  and 
the  training  received  in  its  pursuit  develops  the 
perception,  the  memory,  the  imagination,  etc.  To 
this  class  of  psychologists  education  means  simp- 
ly power  to  think  accurately,  judge  correctly,  and 
reason  logically.  To  them,  facts,  or  knowledge  of 
facts,  are  mere  unimportant  incidents,  pebbles 
picked  up  in  the  real  journey ;  a  hypothetical  edu- 
cated man  might  be  devoid  of  knowledge,  having 
at  his  command  the  power  to  summon  knowledge 
quickly  whenever  it  is  needed. 

Ultra  views  concerning  general  discipline,  car- 


58 


PKINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


Individual 
aptitudes 
of  the 
pupil 

should  "be 
recognized. 


Different 
kinds  of 

observers. 


rying  with  them  the  contention  that  there  is  a 
general  memory,  a  general  judgment,  etc.,  are  no 
longer  insisted  upon,  the  prevailing  theory  being 
that  what  may  cultivate  a  faculty  in  a  particular 
line  does  not  necessarily  improve  it  along  dis- 
similar lines.  One  long  accustomed  to  memoriz- 
ing "literary  gems"  finds  little  difficulty  in  com- 
mitting them,  though  he  may  surprise  the  student 
of  chemistry  or  mathematics  by  his  inability  to 
recall  such  common  formulas  as 

H2S  04  and  tan  A  = -r- 

COS  J\. 

Neither  is  the  habit  of  careful  observation, 
which  is  a  most  valuable  acquisition,  transferable 
to  all  conditions.  Of  the  guests  at  a  social  gather- 
ing, one  will  remember  every  piece  of  music  per- 
formed, another  every  piece  of  decoration,  an- 
other every  sally  of  wit,  while  still  another  is 
unable  to  remember  anything  except  the  apparel 
of  the  guests,  which  is  recalled  in  every  detail  of 
texture,  color,  style,  and  ornamentation. 

A  botanist  and  a  geologist  traveling  together 
see  entirely  different  objects,  the  attention  of  each 
being  directed  to  (not  attracted  by)  what  his  cul- 
tivated interest  dictates. 

The  writer  had  once  an  acquaintance  who  was 
totally  absorbed  in  music.  An  inheritance 
afforded  him  leisure  for  his  piano.  As  he  had 
never  assumed  the  responsibility  of  a  family  he 
lived  with  his  brother,  a  practical  farmer.  One 
afternoon  the  family  cow — the  only  one  kept  at 
the  farm-house  ,and  which  was  seen  by  the  musi- 
cian every  day — failed  to  come  home  at  the  usual 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  59 

time,  and  he  was  requested  to  look  for  her  along 
the  road.  In  his  search  he  met  a  neighbor  boy, 
when  the  following  dialogue  ensued:  "Have  yon 
seen  anywhere  a  cow  wearing  a  bell  in  the  key  of 
C?"  " What  color  is  the  cow !"  "I  do  not  know  if 
she  have  a  color,  but  you  can  tell  her  by  the  tone 
of  the  bell".  "I  saw  a  big  brindle  cow  down  the 
road  yonder,  but  I  didn't  notice  whether  she  had 
a  bell  on  or  not". 

There  are  various  types  of  memory.  Some  peo-  Different 
pie  have  excellent  memories  for  faces,  others  for  Semo?J. 
names.  Some  mathematicians  can  not  easily  recall 
numbers.  Street  addresses  must  be  constantly 
written  for  them.  It  is  a  common  experience  with 
them  that  although  they  manipulate  numbers 
every  day,  and  have  at  their  fingers'  end  numer- 
ous formulas  of  algebra,  trigonometry,  calculus, 
etc.,  the  numbers  they  see  or  hear  out  of  their 
usual  place  can  not  be  recalled.  They  can  not 
recall,  after  reading  an  account  of  a  railroad  acci- 
dent, whether  the  number  injured  was  180  or  1,800, 
can  not  remember  whether  a  farm  contains  80  or 
800  acres ;  whether  the  office  address  is  Eoom  481 
or  841. 

In  abandoning  the  old  doctrine  of  general  dis-  The  other 
cipline  we  should  not,  as  some  have  done,  go  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  disclaim  any  gain  whatever 
from  the  pursuit  of  specific  subjects,  except  the 
actual  knowledge  acquired  in  such  pursuit.  The 
student  of  physics  learns  that  it  is  unsafe  to  base 
a  conclusion  or  to  formulate  a  theory  upon  one,  or 
sometimes  even  a  dozen,  experiments.  He 
acquires  the  conservative  habit  of  thought  that 


60 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Useful 
habits 
acquired 
toy  proper 

study. 


Much  of  the 

value 

of  any 

uchoolwori 
depends 
upon  the 
manner  of 
teacnlng-. 


prevents  jumping  at  conclusions,  a  habit  of 
thought  which  is  afterwards  serviceable  to  him  as 
a  juror,  a  judge,  or  a  teacher.  Doubtless,  there 
would  be  fewer  controversies  concerning  the  aims 
of  education,  the  transmissibility  of  characteris- 
tics, the  principles  and  processes  in  education,  if 
such  habit  were  more  general  among  those  who 
write  on  these  topics. 

Most  subjects  of  a  course  of  study  have  many 
similar,  even  identical,  elements  and  are,  there- 
fore, valuable  for  each  other.  A  knowledge  of  the 
structure,  the  grammar,  and  the  idioms  of  one  lan- 
guage is  a  valuable  asset  in  the  study  of  other 
languages.  While  there  are  no  general  powers 
of  memory,  imagination,  etc.,  there  are  habits  of 
thought,  processes  of  arriving  at  correct  conclu- 
sions, ideals  of  excellence,  powers  of  correlation 
and  application  acquired  in  the  study  of  a  subject 
that  constitute  the  most  valuable  and  durable 
parts  of  education. 

Again,  it  is  claimed  that  it  makes  not  much  dif- 
ference what  one  studies  in  school,  but  it  is  impor- 
tant how  one  studies,  and  with  whom  one  studies ; 
that  one  forgets  what  he  has  studied,  but  he  does 
not  forget  his  teacher.  Many  have  quoted  the 
advice,  "Do  not  elect  a  course  of  study,  elect 
your  teacher".  Were  these  contentions  literally 
true,  the  administration  of  the  educational  proc- 
esses of  a  school  would  be  a  simple  affair.  All 
students  could  be  required  to  take  the  same  course. 
Only  the  responsibility  of  selecting  the  right  kind 
of  teachers  would  be  weighty,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  suitable  buildings  and  obtaining  proper 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  61 

equipments  important.  Smaller  faculties  would 
be  required,  fewer  specialists  would  be  necessary, 
and  the  cost  of  education  would  be  materially 
decreased. 

These  statements,  robbed  of  hyperbole,  could 
be  made  to  express  the  truth.  That  is,  any  sub- 
ject may  be  butchered  and  its  value  destroyed  by 
an  unskilful  teacher;  any  subject  may  be  magni- 
fied and  great  good  derived  from  it  under  a  mag- 
netic and  inspiring  teacher  working  under  proper 
conditions.  These  considerations  lead  to  these 
conclusions  : 

No  subject  should  be  placed  in  a  curriculum 
simply  for  its  disciplinary  value. 

The  subject  should  be  worth  studying  for  itself. 

It  should  have  some  vital  relation  to  life. 

None  of  the  activities  of  life  are  planned  or 
prosecuted  simply  for  the  sake  of  practice.  Build- 
ings are  constructed  because  buildings  are  needed  ; 
railroads  are  built  because  they  are  necessary. 
Always  the  ends  to  be  accomplished  are  the  stim- 
uli that  incite  to  exertion. 

The  aim  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  elemen- 
tary or  high  school  should  not  be  solely  for  prepa-  mentsrfor 


ration  for  entrance  to  the  university.  Hardly  one 
per  cent  of  the  entire  school  population  ever  attain 
to  what  we  call  higher  education;  only  five  per 
cent  to  the  grade  of  our  high  school.  The  high  c 
school  at  present  is  laboring  under  the  handicap 
of  having  to  be  measured  by  two  standards.  The 
public  at  large  demands  of  it  to  prepare  its  stu- 
dents for  active  and  efficient  participation  in  the 
affairs  of  life,  the  workshop,  the  counting  house, 


62 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Two 

distinct 

standards 

attempted 

Tjyhijfh 

school*. 


Classifica- 
tion of  high 
schools 
often 
arbitrary 
and 
artificial. 


the  bank,  and  the  farm,  while  the  higher  institu- 
tions are  measuring  its  efficiency  by  its  ability  to 
prepare  students  for  entrance  to  their  classes. 
That  the  effort  is  being  made  to  satisfy  both  these 
widely  different  standards  is  a  just  criticism  on 
the  plan  of  our  educational  system.  That  the  uni- 
versities in  various  sections  of  the  United  States 
are  rendering  efficient  and  valuable  service  in 
standardizing  the  work  of  the  secondary  schools, 
and  through  them  the  work  of  the  elementary 
schools,  is  recognized  by  every  one.  But  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  there  is  a  growing  feeling 
that  the  spirit  of  the  university  savors  too  much 
of  domination,  and  that  undue  emphasis  in  the 
course  of  study  of  the  other  schools  is  being 
placed  upon  "university  entrance  requirements. ' ' 
The  classification  of  high  schools  into  groups, 
according  to  the  number  of  "  units  of  affiliation " 
with  the  university,  has  set  up  an  arbitrary  and 
artificial  standard  of  measuring  the  efficiency  of 
the  high  schools  that  is  proving  in  many  instances 
much  more  harmful  than  helpful.  The  dissatis- 
faction with  the  present  system  is  further  aggra- 
vated by  the  conviction  that  the  public  high 
schools  are  as  much  wards  of  the  state  as  is  the 
university,  and  are  entitled  to  some  consideration 
in  all  matters  affecting  education  in  the  state. 
There  is  a  feeling  that  it  is  unfair  to  the  other 
schools  for  the  university,  although  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  the  educational  system  of  the  state, 
to  prescribe  terms  of  recognition  to  all  others, 
without  council,  conference  or  consent.  Pro- 
fessional courtesy  sometimes  operates  against 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  63 

needed  reforms  in  entrance  requirements  and  the 
recognition  of  the  work  of  the  high  schools,  the 
action  of  the  committee  on  affiliation  and  recogni- 
tion being  often  practically  annulled  by  the 
unwillingness  of  some  member  of  the  faculty  to 
admit  a  student  to  the  freshman  class  or  to 
advanced  standing  without  his  having  had  a  cer- 
tain specified  lettered  course  in  his  department. 
A  far  more  helpful  and  harmonious  system  of  A  more 

/VT    A  •  i  i    i'  n    ,1          •       ,-,         satisfactory 

affiliation  and  correlation  among  all  the   institu-  method 
tions  of  the  state  could  be  had  by  an  educational  correlation 
commission,  consisting  of  the  State  Superinten-  schools, 
dent  of  Education,  representatives  of  each  state 
educational  institution,  and  of  the    public   high 
schools,  empowered  to  determine  the  actual  stand- 
ing that  should  be  granted  to  a  student  going 
from  one  to  another,  the  commission  being  vested 
with  authority  to  make  such  changes,  additions, 
and  eliminations  in  the  course  of  study  in  any  or 
all  of  the  institutions  or  schools  as  it  deems  nec- 
essary to  insure  perfect  correlation. 

Dr.  Butler,  president  of  Columbia  University,  Easy  to 
says,  "Happily,  there  are  in  the  United  States  no  the  college 
artificial  obstacles  interposed  between  the  college  university, 
and  the  university.    We  make  it  very  easy  to  pass 
from  the  one  to  the  other ;  the  custom  is  to  accept 
any  college  degree  for  just  what  it  means.    We 
make  it  equally  easy  to  pass  from  one  grade  or 
class  to  another,  and  from  elementary  school  to  DifflCuit 
secondary  school,  the  presumption  always  being 
that  the  pupils  are  ready  and  competent  to  go  for- 
Ward.    The  barrier  between  secondary  school  and  coii*gre. 
college  is  the  only  one  that  we  insist  upon  retain- 


64  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

ing.  The  intending  collegian  alone  is  required  to 
run  the  gauntlet  of  college  professors  and  tutors, 
who,  in  utter  ignorance  of  his  character,  training, 
and  acquirements,  bruise  him  for  hours  with  such 
knotty  questions  as  their  fancy  may  suggest.  In 
the  interest  of  increased  college  attendance,  not  to 
mention  that  of  a  sounder  educational  theory,  this 
practice  ought  to  be  stopped". 

Dr.  Draper,  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  in  his  "American  Education", 
speaking  of  the  work  of  the  universities  and  other 
agencies,  says:  "It  is  developing  a  rather  com- 
mon belief  in  the  crowd  that  a  university  which 
does  little  besides  berate  the  lower  schools  about 
suitably  training  students  for  itself,  is  not  doing 
overmuch  for  education". 

The  creation  of  such  a  commission  would  har- 
monize all  the  public  educational  agencies  of  a 
state,  suppress  ill-feeling  and  end  antagonism, 
tend  to  unite  all  the  state  educational  agencies  into 
a  co-operative  and  sympathetic  union,  and  make 
every  citizen  speak  of  them  as  "our  schools", 
what  If  neither  the  doctrine  of  general  discipline,  now 

*e°in  the  repudiated,  nor  the  preparation  for  entrance  to 
college  should  determine  the  course  of  study  for 
the  common  schools,  what  should  determine  it! 
Quoting  again  from  Dr.  Butler,  "The  first  ques- 
tion that  ought  to  be  asked  of  any  course  of  study 
is,  'Does  it  lead  to  knowledge  of  our  contemporary 
civilization?'  If  not,  it  is  neither  efficient  nor 
liberal". 

Almost  every  subject  that  has  now,  or  has  had 
for  several  decades,  a  place  in  the  course  of  study 


THE   COURSE   OF  STUDY  65 

in  our  common  schools,  may  lead  to  such  knowl- 
edge if  the  methods  of  instruction  are  sane  and 
the  proper  aims  of  education  are  kept  constantly 
in  view;  but  some  additions  may  be  profitably 
made,  and  some  of  the  subjects  need  the  elimina- 
tion of  much  useless  matter,  and  the  vitalizing  of 
the  remainder.  A  beginning  has  already  been 
made  in  the  lower  grades.  The  courses  are  being 
modified  by  the  elimination  of  purely  formal  exer- 
cises like  parsing  and  diagramming,  spelling  of 
unrelated  and  obsolete  words,  omission  of  the 
oddities,  puzzles,  and  archiac  problems  in  arith- 
metic, map  questions  in  descriptive  geography, 
dates  of  unimportant  historical  events,  and  by  the 
substitution  for  them  of  interesting  matter,  as 
drawing,  music,  elementary  science,  literature  and 
handiwork.  Effort  is  being  made  in  the  best  com- 
mon schools  everywhere  to  correlate  the  school 
life  with  that  of  the  larger  life  of  mankind,  for 
developing  the  mind  of  the  pupil  in  all  directions, 
particularly  towards  the  ideals  of  a  socially  effi- 
cent  individual. 

A  socially  efficient  individual  is  not  merely  one 
who  can  create  values  himself — he  must  in  addi- 
tion be  able  to  judge  values  of  the  products  of 
others.  All  classes  of  producers  are  interdepend- 
ent. Each  uses  the  product  or  the  services  of  the 
other.  The  man  who  is  uncultured  in  his  choice, 
incapable  of  discriminating  between  the  worthy 
and  the  worthless  in  foodstuffs,  clothing,  news- 
papers, magazines,  books,  music,  art,  political 
service,  is  of  no  help  to  society  in  elevating 
morals,  establishing  correct  standards  of  living, 


66 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Distinction 
between 
literal  and 
vocational 
education. 


Liberally 
educated 
man  knows 
how  to  esti- 
mate the 
worth  of  the 
product*  of 
others. 


or  ridding  society  of  inefficiency  and  corruption. 

Dr.  Snedden,  in  his  "Problems  of  Educational 
Readjustment",  says,  "Liberal  education  may  be 
defined  in  various  ways,  but  to  the  writer,  the  most 
serviceable  definition  is  to  be  made  by  contrasting 
liberal  with  vocational  education  in  the  same  way 
that  production  and  consumption  (or  utilization) 
are  contrasted  in  social  and  economic  life.  Voca- 
tional education  is  designed  to  make  of  a  person 
an  efficient  producer;  liberal  education  may  be 
designed  to  make  of  him  an  effective  consumer  or 
user.  The  liberally  educated  man  utilizes  the 
products  and  services  of  many  producers ;  but  be- 
cause of  his  education  he  uses  them  well.*  *  * 
He  uses  good  literature  rather  than  bad;  he 
exacts  from  other  producers  expert  rather  than 
untrained  service ;  in  his  contracts  he  puts  a  prem- 
ium upon  good  taste,  refinement,  and  right  moral- 
ity. *  *  *  His  utilization  elevates  himself 
and  also  the  world  because  of  his  appreciation,  his 
insight,  his  sympathy". 

Very  few  can  become  proficient  in  music  or  art, 
but  many  can  be  taught  to  appreciate  and  enjoy 
them.  Very  few  can  contribute  to  real  literature, 
but  many  may  be  taught  to  appreciate  it  and  con- 
tribute to  the  cultivation  of  a  pure  literary  taste 
among  their  f ellows.  Hence,  the  chief  reason  for 
putting  art,  music  and  literature  in  courses  of 
study  is  not  to  make  artists,  musicians,  or  authors, 
the  percentage  of  whom  must  always  remain  com- 
paratively small,  but  to  render  service  to  society 
by  creating  a  critical,  exacting  and  appreciative 
citizenship. 


THE  COUBSE  OF  STUDY  67 

No  author  should  attempt  to  designate  the  list 
of  subjects  that  would  make  the  best  course  of  «tnay 
study.  There  is  no  best  course  for  all  conditions, 
localities,  and  situations.  Local  conditions,  the 
qualification  of  the  teachers,  the  dominant  spirit 
of  the  times  or  the  nation,  the  kind  of  equipment 
available,  all  are  determining  factors  in  the  selec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  subjects  in  a  course 
of  study. 

Educational  writers  have  proposed  many  Different 
schemes  of  division  of  the  topics  to  be  considered 
in  planning  a  course  of  study.  Several  authors 
have  recently  undertaken  to  put  into  a  compre- 
hensible form  such  schemes  that  have  become,  as 
it  were,  crystallized  into  accepted  formulas,  and 
it  would  unquestionably  be  more  profitable  to  the 
student  for  the  writer  to  present  here  for  consid- 
eration the  classification  of  some  reputable  auth- 
ors than  to  undertake  one  of  his  own.  The  student 
will  observe  that  while  these  "schemes"  differ  in 
detail  to  some  extent  in  the  point  of  view,  there  is 
substantial  agreement  as  to  the  essentials  of  a 
course  of  study ;  the  rudimentary  principles  of  the 
subject  included  to  be  treated  in  the  elementary 
schools. 

Dr.  Butler,  after  denning  education  to  be  the 
gradual  adjustment  of  the  individual  to  the  spirit-  cours88 
ual  possessions  of  the  race,  says:  "Those  pos- 
sessions may  be  variously  classified,  but  they  cer- 
tainly are  at  least  five-fold.  The  child  is  entitled 
to  his  scientific  inheritance,  to  his  literary  inheri- 
tance, to  his  aesthetic  inheritance,  to  his  institu- 
tional inheritance,  and  to  his  religious  inheritance. 


68 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Views  of 
Dr.  Harris. 


Views  of 
Dr.  De 

Garmo. 


Without  them  he  can  not  become  a  truly  educated 
or  cultured  man ' '. 

William  T.  Harris,  formerly  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  says :  *  '  The  studies 
of  the  school  fall  naturally  into  these  five  groups : 
First,  mathematics  and  physics;, second,  biology, 
including  chiefly  the  plant  and  the  animal ;  third, 
literature  and  art ;  fourth,  grammar  and  the  tech- 
nical and  scientific  study  of  language,  leading  to 
such  branches  as  logic  and  psychology;  fifth,  his- 
tory and  the  study  of  sociological,  political  and 
social  institutions.  Each  one  of  these  groups 
should  be  represented  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
schools  at  all  times  by  some  topic  suited  to  the  age 
and  previous  training  of  the  pupils ' '. 

Professor  De  Garmo,  of  Cornell  University, 
makes  three  great  divisions  of  the  content  of  the 
course  of  study,  (1)  the  Natural  Sciences,  (2)  the 
Humanities,  (3)  the  Economic  Sciences.  These 
divisions  are  subdivided  further,  the  first  division 
including  the  exact  sciences,  the  biological  sci- 
ences, and  the  earth  sciences ;  the  second  division 
including  language,  aesthetics,  and  history;  the 
third  division  including  economics,  technology, 
manual  training,  etc. 

A  lengthy  discussion  of  the  arrangements  and 
classifications  quoted  would  be  foreign  to  the  pur- 
pose of  this  work.  The  student  would  find  it  prof- 
itable as  well  as  interesting  to  consult  the  authors 
mentioned,  who  have  treated  the  question  of  the 
course  of  study  more  fully  than  can  be  undertaken 
here. 

The  young  teacher  should  also   examine  the 


THE   COURSE  OF   STUDY  69 

courses  of  study  of  various  high  schools  and  col- 

leges,  and  endeavor  to  classify,  in  accordance  with 

one  or  all  of  the  three  "  schemes"  cited  above,  the 

various  subjects  found  in  the  courses  published. 

The  fields  of  knowledge  have  become  so  vast  that 

no  one  mind  can  encompass  them  all.    The  domain 

of  any  one  of  its  lowest  divisions  is  so  broad  that 

the  student  must  select  a  few  from  the  great  many 

divisions  and  subdivisions.    "Electives"  are  now 

permitted  in  nearly,  if  not  quite,  all  the  colleges, 

and  in  most  of  the  high  schools  of  the  country. 

But  the  young  student  should  not  be  permitted  to 

make  a  patchwork  of  his  education.    The  courses  zochof  the 

pursued  by  any  student  should  contain  a  minimum 

of  each  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  knowledge, 

the  Humanities,  including  language,  literature, 


history  and  art;  the  Natural  Sciences,  including  ° 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  etc.,  and 
the  Economic  Sciences,  including  agriculture, 
manual  training,  etc.  The  elections  among  the 
other  divisions  should  have  in  view  a  definite  end. 
The  course  of  study  should  lead  somewhere.  The 
completion  of  any  course  should  be  a  guarantee 
of  some  definite  form  of  skill  and  culture. 

The  Elective  System.—  The  wisdom  of  the  elec- 
live  system  has  been  demonstrated  in  American 
colleges  and  universities.  Within  certain  limits  it 
has  proved  practicable  in  our  high  schools.  The 
elective  system  permits  the  student  to  select  a 
course  of  study,  or  allows  the  teacher  to  select  one 
suitable  to  his  capabilities  and  predilections.  It 
recognizes  the  fact  that  there  are  great  variations 
in  accomplishment  among  different  subjects  by  the 


70 


PBINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Wide  ran^e 
of  electives 
for  the  stu- 
dent always 
impossible. 


same  individual.  One  may  have  an  aptitude  for 
natural  science  and  poor  mathematical  ability. 
Another  may  be  excellent  in  the  languages,  but 
have  very  little  capacity  for  philosophy  and  there- 
fore, no  interest  in  any  form  of  abstract  reas- 
oning. 

But  a  little  reflection  will  show  that  even  in  an 
institution  in  which  no  subjects  are  prescribed,  in 
which  the  entire  courses  consist  of  "free  elec- 
tives", the  actual  number  of  electives  for  the  stu- 
dent is  comparatively  small  when  the  entire  num- 
ber of  subjects  offered  is  considered.  The  student 
finds  upon  entrance  to  a  university,  that  he  must 
make  his  elections  conform  to  the  schedule  of  reci- 
tations prepared  for  the  term,  and  as  he  has  prob- 
ably decided  upon  his  course  before  entering,  he 
often  finds  a  "  conflict "  in  the  schedule  between 
two  of  his  chosen  subjects,  and  is  forced  to  aban- 
don one  or  the  other.  He  may  chafe  in  his  dis- 
appointment at  the  failure  of  the  faculty  to  make 
a  schedule  by  which  any  student  could  elect  any 
combination  desired  among  subjects  offered  his 
class. 

The  number  of  different  combinations  possible 
for  a  student  is  limited — dependent  upon  the  num- 
ber of  teachers  for  the  class.  Now,  let  us  suppose 
that  there  are  12  subjects  offered  in  the  Freshman 
year,  and  there  is  a  "free  election"  of  4.  The 
number  of  different  ways  in  which  four  subjects 
may  be  chosen  out  of  12  is  (see  any  text  in  higher 
algebra) 

or    12X11X10X9_, 
°r         2X3X4 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  71 

That  is,  of  495  different  students  entering  a  class, 
to  which  is  offered  an  election  of  4  out  of  12  sub- 
jects, each  could  choose  a  course  different  in  some 
particular  from  all  the  others.  The  futility  of  per- 
mitting unlimited  election,  even  when  "free  elec- 
tives"  are  offered,  is  obvious. 

Some  schools  permit  a  variety  of  choice  by  ar- 
ranging  several  distinct  groups  of  subjects,  allow- 
ing  each  student  to  choose  a  course  or  group.  The  t 

°     ,,«.,,.  £  .      ,  .&  .,    practicable. 

schedule  of  recitations  for  each  class  is  prepared, 
so  there  is  no  conflict  between  two  subjects  of  the 
same  group.  Under  this  plan,  the  student's  elec- 
tion ceases,  when  he  has  chosen  his  group. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Many  enter 
the  ranks 
of  the 
teacher 
without 
Berious  pnr. 
pose. 


THE  CHAEACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  AND  REWARD  OF 
THE  TEACHER 

When  one  speaks  of  a  physician  or  a  lawyer,  he 
means  one  who  has  entered  with  purpose  into  the 
study  and  the  practice  of  medicine  or  law,  making 
it  his  chief  business  in  life.  When  one  speaks  of 
a  teacher,  he  usually  means  simply  one  who  is 
engaged  at  the  time  in  teaching. 

This  distinction  is  caused  by  the  recognition  of 
two  facts : 

1.  The  demands  of  society  expressed  through 
statutory  enactments  for  license  to  practice  medi- 
cine or  law  have  become  so  great  that  one  will  not 
devote  to  the  acquisition  of  the  purely  technical 
information  the  necessary  to  prepare  for  the  ex- 
amination required  for  admission  to  the  practice 
unless  he  purposes  to  remain  in  the  profession, 
while  the  requirements  for  technical  training  for 
admission  into  the  ranks  of  the  teacher  are  com- 
paratively few. 

2.  The  young  physician  or  young  lawyer  usu- 
ally is  forced  to  wait  for  an  indefinite  period  for 
clientage  and  professional  fees,  while  a  young  per- 
son with  a  teacher's  certificate  may  find  employ- 
ment at  once  and  receive  a  fairly  remunerative 
price  for  his  services. 

The  nominal  requirements  for  certification  of 


CHAKACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  73 

teachers,  the  lack  of  a  very  definite  conception  by 
the  public  of  what  constitutes  expert  service  as  a 
teacher,  admits  year  by  year  into  the  school-room 
many  young  men  and  women  who  have  no  fixed 
aim  in  life,  but  who  must  secure  in  some  way  a 
livelihood  while  casting  about  and  prospecting 
among  the  other  callings  for  a  permanent  voca- 
tion. To  those  loiterers  by  the  way,  the  motives 
that  characterize  the  true  teacher  do  not  appeal. 
This  class  of  sojourners  is  not  in  our  mind  when 
we  discuss  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher. 
Character  an  Essential  Qualification  of  the  character 

i         ji  i        essential 

Teacher. — However  numerous  may  be  the  ele- 
ments  that  enter  into  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
as  an  educational  agency,  its  real  worth  is  most 
dependent  upon  the  character  and  qualifications 
of  the  teacher.  If  his  conception  of  the  aims  of 
education  is  false,  if  his  ideals  of  life  are  low,  if 
he  is  weak  in  character,  in  initiative  and  in  per- 
sonality, unsafe  in  counsel,  untrustworthy  or  un- 
reliable anywhere,  his  shortcomings  react  on  the 
school  to  its  injury.  The^[aaiifi£alions  of  the 
teachgx*. -therefor _eA jire  pertinent  to  a  discussion 
"of  education.  The  good  teacher  is  characterized 
by  the  same'" qualities  that  belong  to  all  good  men 
and  good  women  everywhere.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  honesty,  truthfulness,  sincerity,  and 
all  other  cardinal  virtues  are  his  essential  attrib- 
utes. 

Society,  in  general,  demands  more  of  the  teacher 
than  it  exacts  of  any  one  else,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception  of  the  minister.    The  world  is  aware  of  the  of  the 
potency  of  close,  constant  association  and  daily  teacher" 


74 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Scholarship 
necessary  to 
the  teacher. 


The  teacher 
should  be 
far  in  ad- 
vance of 
the  pupil. 


example,  and  since  the  child  is  in  intimate  rela- 
tionship with  the  teacher  during  the  plastic  period 
of  his  life,  the  public  demands  of  the  teacher  that 
he  possess  and  that  he  practice  those  qualities  that 
the  child  may  profitably  imitate.  We  are  not  se- 
riously concerned  in  the  habits  of  the  merchant — 
content  if  his  goods  are  dependable;  nor  in  the 
private  life  of  the  grocer — satisfied  if  he  sells  us 
wholesome  foods.  We  require  of  the  banker  only 
that  he  conduct  his  business  honestly;  but  we  de- 
mand of  the  teacher  that  his  speech,  his  dress,  his 
manners,  his  financial  dealings  be  beyond  adverse 
criticism ;  that  in  morals  he  be  upright,  exemplary, 
clean  and  above  reproach. 

Scholarship  of  the  Teacher. — Scholarship  is 
essential  to  efficient  teaching.  Nothing  is  more 
patent  than  that  one  can  not  teach  what  he  does 
not  know.  Schools  frequently  suffer  from  the 
employment  of  smatterers.  The  teacher  needs 
exact  and  accurate  knowledge  of  his  subject.  He 
needs  to  know  its  setting,  its  history,  its  applica- 
tion. He  should  be  able  to  illustrate  it  from  many 
directions.  Meager  knowledge  is  a  perpetual 
source  of  trouble.  Without  scholarship  the  teacher 
is  hampered  for  want  of  capital,  however  well  he 
may  be  qualified  in  other  respects.  No  good  work 
can  be  done  when  tools  are  lacking.  The  teacher 
should  know  more  than  he  is  expected  to  teach. 
There  seems  to  be  now  a  concurrence  of  opinion 
that  a  teacher's  minimum  educational  training 
should  be  four  years  in  advance  of  that  of  his 
pupils. 

The  teacher  of  arithmetic  should  understand 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  75 

algebra;  the  teacher  of  grammar  should  know 
something  of  rhetoric.  The  efficiency  of  a  teacher 
is  enhanced  by  his  acquaintance  with  all  subjects 
related  to  those  he  teaches.  The  teacher  of  En- 
glish should  know  some  other  language.  Each 
language  has  its  peculiar  idioms  and  construc- 
tions, but  there  are  many  fundamental  principles 
of  all  language  that  are  general,  and  with  these 
the  teacher  of  any  language  ought  to  be  conver- 
sant. 

The  teacher  is  never  called  upon  to  teach  all  he 
knows.  There  should  always  be  a  reserve  force  more  than 

ZlO  1S  3?G  — 

behind.  Even  though  occasion  never  summons  it 
to  the  front,  its  possession  gives  confidence  and 
strength  to  the  teaching.  It  is  valuable  in  that  it 
gives  the  teacher  a  feeling  of  assurance  and  self- 
reliance  that  begets  ease  and  composure  in  the 
presence  of  his  classes.  No  teacher  can  work  up 
to  the  margin  of  his  attainments.  If  he  does,  he 
is  in  constant  peril  of  falling  off.  His  feeling  of 
insecurity  when  near  the  brink  disconcerts  him. 
His  pupils  realize  his  danger  and  watch  to  see  him 
fall — sometimes  they  wilfully  assist  in  the  disas- 
ter. 

Forjhe _  really  competent  teacher  many  qualifi- 
cations are  essential,  but  there  is  no  compensation 
for  the  lack  of  scholarship.  The  teacher  is  no 
longer  supposed  to  know  everything,  but  he  is 
expected  to  know  some  things  well.  Familiarity 
with  the  topography  of  all  sections  of  a  state  is 
expected  of  no  one,  but  every  one  is  supposed  to 
know  his  own  town,  its  location  with  reference  to 
other  towns,  the  most  direct  route  to  its  market 


76 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Profession, 
al  training- 
necessary 
to  the 
teacher. 


The  teacher 
should  con- 
tinue to 
grow. 


Opportuni- 
ties for 
growth. 


and  the  connections  of  the  railroads  passing 
through  it.  The  scholarship  of  the  teacher  should 
include  not  only  academic,  but  professional  train- 
ing. The  once  prevalent  doctrine  that  any  one  can 
teach  anything  he  knows  has  been  exploded.  The 
teacher  should  understand  the  aims  of  the  school, 
the  purposes  of  study,  the  nature  of  mind,  the 
processes  of  teaching ;  he  should  have  very  defin- 
ite ideals  of  character  and  conduct.  Scholarship 
demands  continuous  study.  In  all  education  there 
is  no  such  word  as  "finished". 

Growth  of  the  Teacher. — Whenever  a  teacher 
ceases  to  grow  he  begins  professionally  to  die. 
Therein  is  a  striking  analogy  between  the  physi- 
cal and  the  mental  man.  The  body  passes  through 
the  cycle  of  development  and  decay.  It  is  the  same 
with  the  mind,  but  with  this  great  difference :  the 
decline  of  the  mental  powers  may  be  delayed  and 
the  mind  kept  strong,  vigorous,  and  young  as  long 
as  life  lasts. 

The  teacher  has  many  opportnuities  for  growth. 
The  processes  of  teaching  others  are  a  perpetual 
fountain  of  mental  youth.  Every  recitation  con- 
ducted, every  lesson  explained,  every  exercise  cor- 
rected, every  act  well  performed — each  contributes 
to  the  teacher's  growth.  It  is  a  poor  teacher  who 
learns  less  from  a  recitation  than  his  class.  Care- 
ful and  conscientious  discharge  of  every  duty 
insures  growth.  It  is  only  by  doing  our  best  that 
the  best  grows  better  until  it  becomes  good. 

Emerson  says,  "A  man  is  relieved  and  gay 
when  he  has  put  his  heart  into  his  work  and  done 
his  best;  but  what  he  has  said  or  done  otherwise 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  77 

shall  give  him  no  peace.  It  is  a  deliverance  that 
does  not  deliver.  In  the  attempt  his  genius 
deserts  him ;  no  muse  befriends,  no  invention,  no 
hope". 

It  is  by  doing  his  best  in  all  situations,  prin- 
cipal  or  subordinate,  that  man  rises  to  eminence, 
proficiency,  and  respectability  in  his  profession. 
Some  never  rise  above  mediocrity;  they  never 
grow;  they  remain  professional  dwarfs.  Their 
ability  may  be  great  enough,  but  their  efforts  are 
weak.  The  world  honors  a  growing  man,  a  for- 
ward-looking man.  It  admires  the  climber,  one 
who  sees  visions  and  raises  himself  toward  their 
realization. 

The  most  valuable  thing  about  experience  is  the 
opportunity  it  provides  for  growth.  If  the  oppor- 
tunity is  not  used,  the  experience  counts  for  but 
little.  Books,  magazines,  newspapers,  all  afford 
means  of  growth,  but  the  mental  food  supplied  by 
these  and  by  all  other  agencies  must  be  assimi- 
lated before  they  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the 
teacher.  Only  the  food  that  is  digested  makes 
flesh  and  blood. 

The  teacher  must  know  how  to  study.  Study  is 
one  of  the  fine  arts.  The  printed  page  may  mean 
much  or  it  may  mean  little.  Reading  is  not  always 
studying.  It  may  be  purely  mechanical.  It  may 
call  into  play  only  the  feeblest  manifestations  of 
intelligence.  Pictures,  paintings,  statuary,  to  be 
educational,  must  be  studied.  They  must  appeal 
to  more  than  the  sense  of  sight.  He  who 
only  hears  music  loses  its  rapturous  inspiration. 
Whoever  reads  a  book  or  looks  at  a  picture  sees 


78          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

only  what  there  is  in  it  for  him.  He  may  not  see 
what  the  author  saw,  he  may  see  only  what  was 
expressed  or  what  was  implied.  But  the  master 
student  gets  more  from  a  good  book  than  the 
author  puts  into  it.  He  gets  also  what  the  author 
felt  but  did  not  express.  He  who  plants  a  flower 
garden  is  not  necessarily  its  owner.  It  belongs 
only  to  him  who  can  appreciate  it.  The  gardener 
may  have  legal  title  to  the  soil  and  to  the  material 
parts — the  stalks,  the  petals  and  the  blossoms; 
but  the  real  beauty  is  the  property  of  him  who 
can  appropriate  it. 

Methods  of  The  careful  study  of  a  work  of  art,  whether  it 

firrowtl1*  be  a  piece  of  mechanism,  architecture,  or  music,  or 

of  literature,  is  a  means  of  growth.  To  learn  the 
true  meaning  of  such  a  work  is  a  problem,  and 
we  grow  by  solving  problems.  We  demand  the 
pupil  to  solve  problems.  Our  arithmetics  are  full 
of  them;  grammar  has  many;  physics,  chemistry, 
and  other  sciences  are  now  taught  almost  wholly 
by  presenting  problems ;  Harvard  University  has 
adopted  that  method  in  the  teaching  of  law.  It 
would  enliven  the  dry  bones  of  history  if  the  text 
books  and  the  teachers  would  learn  to  substitute 
for  records  and  narrations,  some  live,  wide-awake, 
problems. 

A  poem  may  have  one  meaning  for  one  student 
and  a  quite  different  meaning  for  another.  They 
may  both  be  right.  We  can  not  always  interpret 
the  thoughts  of  a  writer.  That  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  do  so  is  shown  by  an  anecdote.  It 
is  told  that  a  dispute  once  arose  in  a  literary  club 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  79 

concerning  the  meaning  of  a  line  in  one  of  Brown- 
ing's poems.  In  order  to  settle  the  matter  the  dis- 
putants wrote  Browning  to  know  what  he  meant 
by  the  line  in  question.  He  replied  that  he  had 
forgotten. 

A  mind  grows  from  direct  contact  with  other 
minds  without  the  intervention  of  pen  or  pencil, 
brush  or  chisel.  Thought  always  loses  in  clear- 
ness when  reproduced  on  canvas  or  stone.  There 
is  a  charm  in  observing  life,  action,  motion.  The 
flying  clouds,  the  dashing  torrent,  the  restless 
ocean  appeal  to  our  deepest  recesses  of  feeling. 
Aeschines,  exiled  from  Athens  after  his  memor- 
able contest  with  his  rival  and  enemy  Demos- 
thenes, repeated  to  his  class  in  oratory  a  part 
Demosthene's  famous  oration,  "On  the  Crown". 
When  his  listening  pupils  applauded,  Aeschines 
exclaimed,  "But  you  ought  to  have  heard  the 
brute  himself  speak  it-'. 

The  progressive  teacher  is  using  the  principle 
of  growth  when  he  visits  the  schools  of  other 
teachers,  attends  local  and  county  teachers '  insti- 
tutes, state  and  national  teachers'  associations, 
and  all  other  kinds  of  educational  conventions  or 
assemblies. 

By  visiting  the  best  schools  the  teacher  keeps 
in  touch  with  the  new  phases  of  education,  new 
methods  of  teaching.  He  learns  of  new  equipment 
and  appliances,  and  acquires  a  new  interest  in  his 
own  work  by  seeing  others  engaged  in  meeting  the 
same  demands  and  solving  the  same  problems. 

By  mingling  with  teachers  from  different  sec- 
tions and  engaging  with  them  in  the  discussion  of 


80 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


First-hand 
knowledge 
most  valua- 
ble. 


The  teach- 
er should 
Identify 
himself 
with  the 
community 
in  which 
he  teaches. 


educational  questions  he  is  renewed  in  spirit  and 
strengthened  in  his  grasp  of  the  problems  of  edu- 
cation. By  coming  into  touch  with  the  leaders 
and  master  spirits  in  the  profession,  he  broadens 
his  horizon,  gets  out  of  the  valley  and  upon  the 
mountain  top,  where  he  has  a  better  perspective. 

Travel,  visits  to  museums,  libraries,  great  cities, 
and  objects  of  national  or  historic  interest  contrib- 
ute to  the  growth  of  the  teacher.  The  knowledge 
thus  gained  of  human  achievement,  of  the  flora 
and  fauna  of  different  countries,  of  lakes,  moun- 
tains, waterfalls,  is  concrete,  first  hand,  and,  in 
many  respects,  more  valuable  than  that  gained  by 
other  means. 

The  teacher  must  grow  socially.  Of  all  voca- 
tions that  of  teaching  demands  most  of  the  social 
graces.  The  recluse  can  not  be  a  leader.  The 
power  of  adapting  one's  self  to  conditions,  of  en- 
tering into  the  life  of  the  community,  of  identify- 
ing one 's  self  with  his  patronage  is  a  factor  in  the 
success  of  a  teacher  that  can  hardly  be  over  esti- 
mated. In  cities  where  the  teacher  has  little 
opportunity  of  meeting  his  patrons  socially,  his 
power  is  not  widely  felt;  but  in  the  country  the 
opportunities  for  good  through  the  social  activi- 
ties of  the  community  are  many,  and  the  maxi- 
mum of  the  teacher's  efficiency  is  determined 
largely  by  his  willingness  and  his  ability  to  enter 
into  the  social  life  of  the  people.  If  he  is  regarded 
as  "one  of  us"  he  can  lead;  if  he  is  regarded 
as  an  alien  he  can  neither  lead  nor  successfully 
direct.  The  teacher  who  lives  in  the  neighboring 
village  or  city  and  spends  there  all  his  time  except 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  81 

the  five  school  days  of  the  week  can  not  secure 
the  esteem  and  co-operation  of  his  patronage.  All 
protestations  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
who  spends  his  entire  leisure  away  from  his  com- 
munity are  discredited. 

Personality  of  the  Teacher.— Another  element  of 
a  teacher's  success  is  that  enigmatical  quality  or  autfactor- 
endowment  called  personality.  It  is  among  the 
subtlest  of  subtle  characteristics.  It  defies  defini- 
tion ;  it  eludes  description ;  it  baffles  identification. 
We  are  repelled  or  attracted  by  it;  we  combat  it 
or  we  surrender  to  it.  A  positive  personality,  a 
winning  manner,  or  a  magnetic  spirit,  gives  one 
an  advantage  to  begin  with.  Whatever  its  ele- 
ments are,  whether  innate  or  acquired,  personal- 
ity is  not  a  fixed  quantity.  It  is  modified  by  all 
one  has  seen,  heard,  or  felt.  It  may  be  called  the 
product  of  all  the  influences  of  environment, 
effort,  thought,  emotions,  possessions,  and  aspira- 
tions of  the  individual. 

The  Attitude  of  the  Teacher.— The  teacher's  at-  2SSJ i?acveer 
titude  towards  his  vocation  is  an  important  ele- 
ment  of  his  efficiency  and  of  his  happiness  in  the 
work.  Above  all  else,  the  teacher  must  believe  in 
his  calling.  His  belief  in  its  importance  and  its 
dignity  must  amount  to  more  than  interest,  more 
than  enthusiasm;  it  must  attain  to  consecration. 
He  should  regard  teaching  as  a  profession  and  not 
a  trade.  Both  the  trade  and  the  profession  are  trade?0* a 
honorable.  The  chief  distinction  between  them  is, 
the  profession  is  guided  by  general  fundamental 
principles  and  immutable  laws,  while  the  trade  is 
governed  by  specific  rules  and  directions  which  to 


82 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  teacher 
must  keep 
in  sym- 
pathy with 

children. 


Three  types 
of  the 
teacher. 


the  workman  may  be  quite  arbitrary.  Those  direc- 
tions may  rest  upon  general  principles,  but  the 
workman  may  have  no  acquaintance  with  them. 

The  architect  must  have  a  knowledge  of  several 
phases  of  mathematics,  physics  and  other  sciences. 
He  is  seldom  called  upon  to  duplicate  a  building 
or  to  use  the  same  plans  twice.  The  carpenter 
who  uses  the  plans  follows  them  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  architect,  often  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  sciences  upon  which  they  are 
based. 

The  teacher  must  believe  in  teaching  as  the 
artist  believes  in  art.  It  must  be  his  pride,  his 
delight,  his  life.  He  must  not  be  a  drudge  in  spirit 
or  a  slave  in  performance.  He  must  keep  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  young,  with  their  pleasures,  their 
sports,  and  their  aspirations.  He  must  not  be  an- 
noyed by  their  boisterousness,  their  mischief,  or 
their  prattle.  Whoever  has  lost  the  pleasure  of 
association  with  children  has  lost  the  spirit  of  the 
teacher.  As  has  been  previously  stated,  the 
teacher  must  love  his  subject,  but  his  love  for  the 
subject  should  not  eclipse  his  love  for  the  pupil. 

In  my  experience  as  a  student  I  recall  in  this 
connection  three  teachers.  The  first  (as  I  after- 
wards learned)  had  mastered  the  language  of  a 
few  books.  These  he  knew  "by  heart"  by  chap- 
ter, page,  and  paragraph.  He  olid  not  need  a  book 
in  hand  to  conduct  the  recitation  in  spelling,  read- 
ing, geography,  or  arithmetic.  The  younger  pu- 
pils wondered  how  one  man  could  know  so  much 
as  he.  But  looking  back  after  many  years  I 
find  that  he  did  not  reach  me  or  touch  me  vitally 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  86 

anywhere.  He  was  a  book  teacher,  and  his  aim 
was  to  make  an  exhibition  of  his  accomplishments ; 
or,  if  he  had  any  other  motive,  it  was  to  make 
scholars  after  his  pattern,  memorizers  of  books. 

The  second  was  of  a  higher  order  than  the  first. 
He  knew  no  book  '  '  by  heart ' '.  He  had  a  contempt 
for  any  one  that  did.  He  had  a  library  of  works 
on  his  subject,  but  he  was  not  bound  by  their 
teachings.  He  wrote  books,  himself.  He  contrib- 
uted to  the  knowledge  of  his  time.  He  knew  his 
particular  subject.  It  was  his  meat  and  drink. 
But  looking  back  after  many  years,  I  find  that  he 
did  not  contribute  much  to  my  attainment  of  the 
elements  of  real  education.  He  was  a  subject  The  subject 

teacher. 

teacher,  and  his  aim  was  to  make  chemists  of  his 
students,  and  to  advance  human  knowledge  in  his 
subject,  alone. 

The  third  was  familiar  with  the  text  books  he 
used,  and  skilled  in  the  subject  he  taught,  though 
he  was  neither  wedded  to  the  book  nor  enamored 
of  the  subject.  But  he  understood  and  loved  the 
boy.  His  sympathy  was  broad,  his  affection  deep, 
and  his  hopes  were  high.  And,  looking  back  after 
all  these  years,  I  find  that  he  was  worth  more  to 
me,  and  to  all  the  boys  that  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  tender  heart,  his  noble  example,  his 
glorious  character,  than  all  the  books  I  ever 

,    learned  and  all  chemical  formulas  I  ever  verified. 

^  He  was  a  human  teacher,  and  his  aim  was  not  to  *j£an 

J  make  scholars  only,  not  to  make  mathematicians  teaSSr. 

^merely,  but  to  make  men. 

The  teacher  blunders  when  he  depends  upon  any 
one  or  more  of  the  recognized  qualifications  for  his 


84 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


futility  of 
dependence 
upon  any 
one  quali- 
fication. 


achievement.  Character  is  indispensable,  but  the 
most  unblemished  character  does  not  make  up 
for  lack  of  scholarship,  judgment,  common  sense, 
executive  ability,  professional  skill,  tact  and  other 
essential  qualities. 

Neither  must  one  place  too  exclusive  depend- 
ence upon  scholarship.  Lack  of  other  essentials 
are  frequently  emphasized  by  extensive  learning. 
Sometimes  one  remains  so  long  in  school  and  be- 
comes so  immured  in  books  and  neglectful  of  the 
social  side  of  life  that  he  is  trained  away  from, 
instead  of  towards,  knowledge  of,  and  sympathy 
with,  the  practical  things  of  life,  and  is  unfitted 
by  attitude  and  experience  for  effective  work.  His 
energies  have  been  exhausted,  his  sympathies 
atrophied,  and  his  vision  impaired.  His  condition 
recalls  to  mind  the  retort  of  an  uncultured  candi- 
date to  his  opponent  who  chaffed  him  for  his  lack 
of  education,  and  expatiated  upon  his  own  experi- 
ence of  years  in  college  and  the  law  school  in  pre- 
paring to  serve  the  public  capably,  when  the  other 
replied,  "My  opponent  reminds  me  of  one  of  our 
old  Georgia  farms,  poor  by  nature  and  wtorn  out 
by  cultivation". 

The  student  may  forget  that  there  are  many 
sides  to  a  successful  life.  Some  of  the  ablest  spe- 
cialists are  valuable  as  contributors  to  human 
knowledge,  but  inefficient  as  teachers.  They  are 
lovers  of  subjects,  disciples  of  science,  devotees 
of  metaphysics,  when  the  schools  need  leaders  of 
children  and  makers  of  men.  Much  learning  has 
unbalanced  them.  They  suffer  from  a  kind  of 
intellectual  intoxication. 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  85 

The  teacher  blunders  when  he  trusts  too  much  self 
to   native   ability,   unusual   accomplishments,   or 


striking  personality,  and  attempts  to  substitute  £?the  e 
these  for  scholarship,  industry,  and  the  capacity  ° 


for  drudgery.  Some  of  the  poorest  teachers  are 
the  most  entertaining  to  a  class,  the  most  pleasing 
in  expression,  and  the  most  fluent  and  elegant  in 
speech.  They  fail  in  the  critical  test  of  the 
teacher,  the  ability  to  arouse  the  student  to  self- 
activity.  Such  teachers  act  as  if  classes  were 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  affording  them  oppor- 
tunity for  displaying  their  accomplishments.  The 
glamor  they  throw  around  their  subjects  soon 
palls,  the  gloss  soon  wears  off,  and  their  pyro- 
technics are  soon  extinguished,  and  nothing  sub- 
stantial remains.  ?*tpaiway« 

Expert  service  comes  with  experience.  It  is 
useless  to  expect  the  best  work  from  a  novice,  but 
long  experience  is  no  guarantee  of  efficiency.  Ex- 
perience may  have  crystallized  into  habits  that 
violate  every  canon  of  scientific  teaching.  "The 
pure  empiricist  never  can  have  any  genuine  ex- 
perience", says  Dr.  Nicholas  M.  Butler,  "any 
more  than  the  animal,  because  he  is  unable  to  in- 
terrogate the  phenomena  that  present  themselves 
to  him,  and  hence  he  is  unable  to  understand 
them".  The  wrong  kind  of  experience  —  experi- 
ence not  founded  upon  correct  principles,  keen 
insight,  and  competent  direction  —  is  to  be  feared. 
School  boards  need  to  qualify  their  requirements 
that  applicants  for  positions  must  have  had  ex- 
perience, and  make  careful  inquiry  into  the  nature 
of  the  experience  offered  as  qualifications. 


86 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


How  the 
value  of  a 
teacher  is 

determined. 


Valuable 
qualities  of 
the  teacher. 


The  Value  of  a  Teacher.— The  true  worth  of  a 
teacher  in  a  community,  a  system  of  schools  or  in 
an  institution  depends  upon  many  traits,  some  of 
which  are  not  usually  mentioned  in  a  category  of 
the  teacher's  qualifications.  If  a  superintendent, 
a  principal,  or  a  president  of  a  college  is  asked 
how  he  estimates  the  worth  of  a  teacher,  he  begins 
to  think  of  reliability,  spirit,  punctuality,  willing- 
ness, loyalty,  and  other  qualities,  some  of  which 
are  not  readily  definable.  He  places  a  high  esti- 
mate upon  the  teacher  who  can  be  relied  upon  un- 
der all  circumstances;  upon  one  whose  judgment 
is  sound,  whose  influence  is  wholesome,  and  whose 
example  is  inspiring.  He  estimates  the  worth  of 
a  teacher  by~ that  degree  of  security  that  he  feels 
in  entrusting  to  him  any  undertaking  or  respon- 
sibility. He  weighs  him  with  reference  to  his 
fidelity  to  trust,  his  sincerity  and  his  candor  in  all 
kinds  of  relations.  Every  one  is  afraid  of  a  secre- 
tive, double-faced  nature.  Diogenes,  asked  which 
of  the  animals  he  regarded  as  the  most  dangerous, 
replied,  "Of  wild  animals,  the  slanderer;  of  tame 
animals,  the  flatterer''. 

That  teacher  is  valuable  who  recognizes  that  his 
duties  and  responsibilities  do  not  terminate  with 
the  recitation,  who  realizes  that  the  school  has 
just  claims  upon  his  influence  and  example,  upon 
his  habits  and  conduct  during  the  twenty-four 
hours  of  the  day,  the  seven  days  of  the  week,  and 
the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  and  who  is  wise 
enough,  and  considerate  enough,  to  make  this  in- 
fluence and  these  habits  such  as  redound  to  the 
good  of  the  school. 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  87 

V 

The  teacher  is  valuable  also  when,  in  addition 
to  other  qualifications,  he  enters  the  class-room 
with  a  cheerful,  hopeful,  optimistic  countenance 
that  radiates  good  humor  on  every  hand.  toyaity  floes 

.  not  meet  the 

No  superintendent  or  other  administrative  offi-  *wi  requiro- 

,  ~t   ,  ments  of  tne 

©er  could  be  expected  to  place  a  high  value  upon  teacher. 
a  teacher  who  would  rejoice  openly  or  secretly 
in  the  failure  of  his  administration,  and  folly  is 
hardly  a  term  strong  enough  to  characterize  the 
conduct  of  such  officer  who  would  recommend  the 
re-election  of  such  teacher  or  acquiesce  in  his 
retention.  But  loyalty  to  the  board,  to  the  super- 
intendent, to  the  principal,  or  to  the  president 
does  not  fill  the  measure  of  the  teacher's  worth 
to  an  institution.  Every  school  has  its  ideals,  its 
spirit,  its  traditions.  These  should  not  be  care- 
lessly ignored  or  despitefully  anathematized. 

No  administrative  officer  places  a  high  estimate 
upon  the  teacher  who  performs  his  duties  as  if 
they  were  a  task ;  who  feels  that  all  processes  of 
the  school  are  onerous  and  burdensome;  who 
shirks  assignment  to  duty;  who  suggests  that  he 
has  more  work  than  other  members  of  the  force ; 
who  counts  hours;  who  must  be  reminded  of  his 
assignment ;  who  is  habitually  tardy  in  meeting  or 
in  dismissing  his  classes ;  who  must  be  prodded  for 
his  reports ;  who  tacitly  disclaims  his  responsibil- 
ity in  the  discipline  of  the  school ;  who  slights  his 
work  on  committees ;  who  exhibits  in  any  manner 
a  spirit  of  enmity,  envy,  or  jealousy  towards 
^)ther  teachers,  or  manifests  an  unwillingness  for 
cooperation  with  all  the  forces  of  the  school. 

The  Rewards  of  the  Teacher.— Whenever  one 


88          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

contemplates  a  life  work,  there  obtrudes  the  very 
practical  question,  "Does  it  pay?"  The  answer 
to  this  question  as  it  concerns  the  profession  of 
teaching  will  depend  upon  what  is  meant  by  pay. 
If  it  means  the  amount  of  money  received  by  the 
teacher  for  professional  services,  faithfully  and 
skilfully  rendered,  when  compared  to  that  received 
by  members  of  the  profession  of  medicine,  law, 
and  other  learned  vocations,  or  by  business  men 
of  the  same  amount  of  preparation,  and  general 
intelligence,  the  answer  would  be  that  it  does  not 
pay. 

The  teacher          The  teacher's  professional  duties  unfit  him  for 
S?«SSca?ot    the  sharp  competition  of  business,  the  cultivation  j 
of  the  trading  instinct,  the  acquisition  of  "money  j 
sense"  that  enable  him,  as  a  general  proposition,  j 
to  make  any  outside  additions  to  what  he  receives 
for  his  services.    He  continually  sees  around  him 
competencies  acquired  through  investments  mad( 
profitable  by  the  enhancement  of  values,  that  he 
did  not  discern,  and  for  which  his  training  gave 
him  no  power  of  discernment.    The  compensation 
of  the  teacher  does  not  continue  to  increase  with 
age  and  experience  as  is  the  case  with  the  com 
petent  lawyer  or  physician.    The  opinion  of  one 
who  has  gained  eminence  in  either  law  or  medi 
cine  often  commands  a  high  market  price,  but  the 
eminence  of  the  teacher  gives  to  his  opinion  no 
market  value.    It  is,  therefore,  more  necessary  for 
him  to  provide  against  the  decrepitude  of  old  age 
There  are  several  reasons  for  the  scantiness  o: 
the  teacher's  compensation. 
First,  the  teacher  is   a   salaried   servant   01 


CHAKACTEB,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWAKDS  89 

officer,  whichever  you  will.  Most  professions 
derive  their  income  from  fees  not  fixed  by  those 
who  pay  them.  The  salaries  of  all  who  serve  the 
public  are  small  in  comparison  with  those  of 
others  of  equal  training  and  skill. 

Second,  the  services  of  the  teacher  do  not 
directly  increase  the  incomes  of  those  who  employ 
him,  as  is  the  case  with  those  engaged  in  com- 
merce,  transportation,  etc.  His  services  have  no 
immediate  money  value.  The  lawyer's  service  is 
engaged  chiefly  in  transactions  involving  money. 
The  physician  restores  the  health  or  preserves 
the  life,  both  easily  transmutable  into  power  to 
produce. 

Third,  the  teacher  is  seldom  a  fixture.  While 
others  select  their  fields,  more  often  other  circum- 
stances than  his  own  desires  will  determine  the 
teacher's  location.  A  nomadic  life  is  adverse  to 
accumulation  of  property.  Journeymen  must 
always  be  content  with  journeymen's  wages. 

Fourth,  it  is  still  too  easy  to  register  as  a 
member  of  the  teacher's  craft.  The  compensa- 
tion of  the  professional  teacher  suffers  on  account 
of  the  great  number  of  novices  engaged  in 
teaching. 

Fifth,  the  short  professional  life  of  the  teacher 
is  a  handicap  that  can  not  be  overcome.  The  first 
five  years  of  a  vocation  is  a  term  of  apprentice- 
ship, and  the  vocation  that  claims  its  members 
only  during  this  term  can  not  reasonably  expect 
to  command  master's  wages. 

Sixth,  the  sudden  advent  of  woman  into  the 
ranks,  and  the  unwillingness  of  the  public  to 


90 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


A  growing* 
demand  for 
the  best 
teachers. 


The  teacher 
must  convince 
the  public 
that  he  la 
worthy. 


regard  her  as  a  professional  teacher,  so  long  as 
she,  as  a  general  proposition,  does  not  regard 
teaching  as  her  life  work,  operates  to  lower  the 
teacher's  salary. 

The  teacher  must  look  elsewhere  for  his  chief 
reward.  That  he  does  so  is  a  tribute  to  his  devo- 
tion. He  is  not  consumed  with  the  passion  for 
money.  He  seldom  complains  at  his  lot.  But 
society  is  already  beginning  to  give  serious  con- 
sideration to  the  value  of  his  services.  There  is 
now  a  gratifying  demand  everywhere  for  the  best 
teachers  at  good  salaries.  The  entire  country  is 
being  searched  for  the  real  teacher.  Promotion 
always  awaits  him.  The  best  teachers  are  grad- 
ually getting  into  the  best  places.  It  is  usually 
the  most  incompetent  teacher  that  is  importunate 
about  a  raise  in  his  salary.  Those  who  most 
deserve  a  promotion  seldom  clamor  for  it. 

The  teacher  should  always  be  ready  to  accept 
a  genuine  promotion,  but  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  changes  of  his  location  falls  short  of 
producing  substantial  advancement  of  his  pros- 
perity, reputation,  or  contentment. 

While  the  teacher  should  hot  be  anchored  any- 
where, his  ultimate  good  fortune  depends  in  a 
great  measure  upon  his  suppression  of  that  rest- 
less, unquiet  spirit  that  "  robes  the  distant  moun- 
tain in  azure  hue". 

The  teacher  must  impress  the  public,  Ms 
patrons,  and,  above  all,  his  pupils,  that  he  is  an 
earnest,  skilful  artist;  that  even  if  he  is  not  a 
scholar,  he  is  a  gentleman,  or  she  is  a  lady;  that 
he  is  a  power  for  good,  for  progress,  and  for  the 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  91 

elevation  of  mankind;  that  he  is  worthy  of  his 
hire.  By  these  means  the  dignity  of  his  pro- 
fession is  enhanced,  its  importance  in  the  economy 
of  society  is  established,  and  the  increase  in  his 
compensation  is  assured. 

Even  if  others,  coming  after  his  time,  must  reap 
what  he  has  sown,  nevertheless,  let  him  sow.  It 
is  the  solemn  and  sacred  duty  of  every  teacher  so 
to  live  and  so  to  work  that  others  after  him  may 
enjoy  the  full  fruition  of  his  work,  and  his  life; 
that  his  successors  may  find  the  work  more  pleas- 
ant and  more  lucrative  for  his  having  been  in 
advance. 

But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  hoped  for  by  the  most 
optimistic,  the  compensation  of  the  teacher  can 
never  be  made  to  equal  that  of  those  trades  and 
professions  devoted  to  producing  or  protecting 
wealth  in  the  concrete.  The  successful  railroad 
manager,  by  whose  tactics  the  coffers  of  a  cor- 
poration are  rendered  plethoric;  the  capable 
lawyer,  upon  whose  adroitness  depends  the  saving 
of  fortunes  entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  courts ; 
the  expert  surgeon,  upon  whose  skill  depends  the 
life  of  a  millionaire — these  will  always  command 
a  higher  price  than  the  teacher,  the  results  of 
whose  labors  are  less  immediate,  less  evident,  and 
less  easily  estimated  in  money. 

No  one  must  expect  the  accumulation  of  a  large 
fortune  from  the  salary  of  a  teacher.     Such  a 
fancy  is  Utopian.     All  the  faithful  teacher  can  expect 
expect  is  a  station  of  respectability  among  hon- 
ored men,  a  decent  livelihood,  the  conveniences. 


92          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

and  not  the  luxuries,  of  life,  means  sufficient  to 
support,  protect  and  educate  those  dependent 
upon  him,  and  to  save  by  economy  for  his  declining 
years  enough  to  prevent  him  from  being  an  object 
of  charity  or  a  burden  upon  others.  It  is  useless 
for  him  to  demand  more ;  he  needs  nothing  more ; 
he  should  crave  nothing  more. 

But  the  teacher's  greatest  compensation  is  not 
measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  There  are  higher 
rewards  than  gold.  Custom  grants  him  one  holi- 
day in  seven  in  addition  to  the  Sabbath  for  needed 
recreation  and  the  pleasures  of  his  scholarly 
habits  and  tastes.  His  hours  of  labor  are  shorter 
than  those  of  most  men  of  affairs  who  work  on 
salary ;  and  his  work,  the  education  of  the  young 
and  trustful,  is  a  task  that  is  in  itself  a  delight 
and  an  inspiration. 

He  is  a  public  benefactor.  It  is  his  to  train  men 
for  all  the  professions,  and  he  must  look  to  the 
rich  results  of  his  work  for  his  chief  compensa- 
tion. The  realization  that  his  is  truly  a  great 
and  noble  work,  the  uplifting  of  the  human  race, 
the  training  of  the  honest  tradesman,  the  upright 
judge,  the  incorruptible  juryman,  the  virtuous 
statesman,  the  faithful  legislator,  the  fearless 
manhood  and  the  modest  womanhood  of  the 
nation,  gives  to  him  the  dignity  of  character  that 
he  would  not  exchange  for  silver  or  gold. 

In  later  life  the  victories  of  his  former  pupils 
are  his  triumphs;  their  fame,  his  renown;  their 
honor,  his  glory;  their  achievements,  his  com- 
pensation. 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARD?  93 

There  is  a  beautiful  myth  found  in  the  ancient 
classics. 

Diana,  having  prepared  a  fete,  summoned  to 
her  court  representatives  of  all  the  trades  and 
professions  and  announced  that  in  the  presence  " 
of  the  gods  she  would  award  a  golden  crown  to 
him  who  would  show  his  craft  to  be  the  most 
useful  to  her  realm. 

Her  proclamation  called  from  all  parts  of  her 
dominion  craftsmen  of  every  trade,  all  eager  to 
gain  the  prize. 

High  upon  her  chair  of  state  sat  Diana  to  weigh 
impartially  the  merits  of  each  contestant  for  the 
coveted  crown. 

The  sturdy  farmer,  given  a  hearing  first  of  all, 
in  simple  but  confident  terms  urged  his  claims, 
exhibiting  his  golden  harvests  and  picturing  his  The  farmer, 
growing  fields,  displaying  in  gorgeous  profusion 
the  products  of  his  toil,  emphasizing  the  antiquity 
of  his  order,  and  contending  that  this  trade  was 
the  basis  upon  which  all  the  others  must  depend 
for  support.  As  he  retired,  Ceres,  who  sat  on 
Diana's  left,  gave  him  an  approving  smile,  and 
he  felt  the  contest  won. 

Next  came  the  sailor,  confident  as  his  prede- 
cessor. He  portrayed  the  dangers  of  the  deep,  Thegallolt 
the  terrors  of  the  storm  king,  and  the  sacrifices 
of  a  life  upon  the  treacherous  waves,  and  en- 
treated a  just  consideration  of  the  self-denial  of 
him  who  relinquished  all  the  pleasures  of  a  home 
that  he  might  bring  to  the  homes  of  others  the 
luxuries  of  other  climes.  He  retired  not  without 
friends  among  the  assembled  gods,  for  Neptune 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The 

statesmz 


nodded  his  approval  and  Aeolus  shouted  with 
applause. 

Clad  in  rich  paraphernalia  of  war,  with  gleam- 
ing helmet  and  glistening  spear,  arose  the  warrior. 
Upon  his  brow  sat  courage,  and  love  of  battle 
shone  from  his  piercing  eye.  He  strode  into  the 
arena  like  a  victor  proposing  terms  to  a  van- 
quished foe.  The  recital  of  his  deeds  of  daring 
called  forth  a  murmur  of  admiration  from  the 
assembled  deities,  and  Mars  applauded  vocifer- 
ously. He  retired  with  the  martial  bearing  and 
haughty  stride  of  the  destroyer  of  a  thousand 
cities. 

Discomfiture  was  visible  in  the  faces  of  all  the 
competitors,  but  the  brawny  smith,  after  some 
delay,  marshalled  courage  to  plead  his  cause,  and 
exhibit  the  products  of  his  skill. 

He  contended  that  without  the  creation  of  his 
shop  agriculture  would  be  impracticable,  com- 
merce unattainable,  and  warfare  impossible.  He 
credited  the  arms  so  boastfully  exploited  by  the 
soldier  to  his  own  account,  and  protested  that 
without  the  products  of  his  forge,  man  would 
never  have  emerged  from  a  state  of  barbarism. 

Upon  the  conclusion  of  this  passionate  oration, 
Vulcan  expressed  his  approbation,  but  Diana, 
calm  and  unfathomable,  called  for  other  con- 
testants. 

Arrayed  in  his  stately  robes  of  office,  appeared 
the  statesman,  representing,  he  said,  the  law- 
giver, the  jurist,  and  the  advocate.  Practised  in 
all  the  graces  of  oratory  and  skilled  in  the  charms 
of  rhetoric,  drawing  inspiration  alike  from  phil- 


CHARACTER,  QUALIFICATIONS,  REWARDS  95 

osophers  and  poets,  soaring  to  heights  giddy  in 
their  grandeur,  he  stood,  as  he  affirmed,  the  expo- 
nent of  the  liberty  of  man,  the  protector  of  the 
weak,  the  defender  of  the  poor.  To  him,  he 
claimed,  governments  owed  their  origin,  their 
power  and  their  perpetuity;  society  its  existence, 
oaths  their  sanctity,  human  nature  its  culture,  and 
mankind  its  civilization. 

Captivated  by  the  charm  of  his  fancy,  the  per- 
fection of  his  logic,  and  the  magnetism  of  his 
personality,  the  assembled  deities  forgot  their 
special  charges,  and  the  hitherto  immobile  coun- 
tenance of  Diana  indicated  clearly  that  the  award 
was  made. 

But  surveying  the  multitude  before  her,  Diana 
descried  in  the  rear  of  the  court  a  silver-haired 
man  who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  rivalry.  "  Who 
are  you?"  she  asked,  "and  why  do  you  not 
speak?" 

"I  am  not  a  contestant",  he  replied.  "I  have 
no  champion  deity,  I  am  merely  a  looker-on,  these 
young  men  are  my  pupils,  and  I  am  in  attendance 
to  congratulate  the  fortunate  one  and  to  console 
the  unsuccessful". 

Then,  our  legend  tells  us,  that  a  new  light  shone 
in  the  eyes  of  Diana,  and  that  amid  the  plaudits 
of  the  gods  and  the  contestants,  she  placed  the 
golden  crown  upon  the  frosted  head  of  the  old 
schoolmaster. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


SENSORY   EDUCATION. 


Wireless 
telegraphy. 


Improved 
methods  in 
all  activities. 


When  a  few  weeks  ago  the  human  voice  without 
the  intervention  of  cable  or  wire  was  carried  from 
the  Eiffel  Tower  in  France  to  a  tower  in  Ar- 
lington, Virginia,  and  again  from  Arlington  to 
Honolulu,  human  achievement  reached  another  of 
its  climaxes.  So  rapidly  have  the  products  of  the 
human  intellect  followed  each  other  during  the 
last  few  decades  that  the  imagination  hesitates  to 
venture  far  into  the  field  of  prophecy  of  the 
marvels  that  may  await  the  next  generation. 

Modern  science  has  revolutionized  the  pro- 
cesses of  every  industry,  trade,  and  profession. 
Farming,  mining,  fishing,  teaching,  as  well  as  the 
practice  of  the  professions  of  law  and  medicine, 
all  have  felt  the  magic  touch  of  the  wizard  Sci- 
ence. A  Burbank,  an  Edison,  a  Marconi  or  a 
Pasteur  is  born,  and  by  his  birth  new  sources  of 
knowledge  are  discovered,  and  the  world  is  trans- 
formed. The  primitive  methods  of  planting,  cul- 
tivating, and  harvesting,  are  no  more.  The 
bacteriologist,  with  his  microscope  has  overturned 
the  old  theories  of  medicine,  and  the  iron  horse 
of  Watt  and  his  followers,  has  revolutionized  all 
the  methods  of  commerce,  traffic,  and  transporta- 
tion. 


SENSORY   EDUCATION  97 

When  we  consider  the  almost  miraculous 
achievements  of  the  higher  powers  of  the  mind, 
we  are  liable  to  forget  one  important  fact  as 
stated  by  Comenius,  that  "  There  is  nothing  in  turougn  the 
the  understanding  that  has  not  been  first  in  the 
senses",  and  forgetting  this  truth,  we  are  apt  to 
conclude  that  the  training  of  the  senses  is  no 
longer  necessary,  or  that  nature  and  the  informal 
agencies  of  home,  society,  etc.,  afford  abundant 
opportunity  for  their  development. 

It  is  true  that  in  a  civilized  state  man's  depend- 
ence upon  acuteness  of  sense  is  not  nearly  so 
absolute  as  during  the  time  he  lived  in  the  wilds 
of  savage  life,  beset  by  ferocious  beasts  and  bar- 
barous  foes,  when  his  chief  reliance  was  upon  8ava^eUfe- 
stealth  and  cunning  for  obtaining  his  food  and 
preserving  his  existence.  Under  these  primitive 
conditions  keenness  of  sight,  acuteness  of  hearing, 
swiftness  of  foot,  and  strength  of  muscle  were 
most  valuable  and  essential  attainments. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  skill 
in  the  construction  of  all  our  mechanisms 
depends  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  sight  and  the 
touch,  and  frequently  the  hearing.  The  skill  of 
the  physician  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease  depends  perception, 
considerably  upon  his  accuracy  of  sight,  that  of 
the  surgeon  upon  his  deftness  of  touch  and  adroit- 
ness of  hand,  while  the  value  of  the  services  of 
jewellers,  watch  and  instrument  makers,  millers, 
and  professional  buyers  of  all  kinds  of  textiles, 
depends  almost  solely  upon  the  training  of  one  or 
more  of  the  senses. 

Some  brands  of  scientific  instruments,  as  mi- 


98          PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

croscopes,  theodolites,  stethoscopes,  as  well  as 
particular  kinds  of  cutlery,  glassware,  etc.,  become 
famous  because  of  processes  relying  entirely  upon 
the  efficiency  of  the  senses.  Some  pottery  manu- 
facturers, through  their  specially  trained  work- 
men, guard  their  secret  methods,  which  can  be 
learned  only  through  special  training  of  the 
senses,  the  processes  not  being  susceptible  of 
reduction  to  formulas,  recipes,  or  printed  direc- 
tions. 

Lack  of  skill  as  a  carpenter,  blacksmith  or  other 
artisan,  merchant,  trader,  architect,  or  teacher, 
frequently  results  not  from  want  of  industry, 
native  ability,  or  intelligence.    Nor  are  workmen 
always  inexpert  because  of  ignorance  of  funda- 
mental principles  upon  which  their  vocations  are 
Many  do  not     based.    They  are  unskilful  because  they  have  not 
themselves."     learned  to  see,  to  hear,  and  to  feel  for  themselves ; 
because  they  get  their  impressions,  their  opinions, 
and  their  ideals  secondhand.    Not  knowing  how  to 
study  nature,  they  adopt  what  others  say  of  her ; 
not  having  learned  how  to  observe  and  interpret, 
they  must  accept  the  interpretations  of  others; 
incapable  of  initiative,  they  remain  imitators  all 
their  lives.    They  learn  how  to  translate  from  one 
.    language  to  another ;  they  become  adepts  in  con- 
struing the  thoughts  of  others,  but  they  have  no 
original  thoughts  of  their  own.    How  many  cooks, 
with  years  of  experience,  have  'not  learned  how 
the  commonest  viands  ought  to  taste,  or  what 
aroma  good  coffee  ought  to  have!     How  many 
housekeepers  never  learn  how  to  arrange  furni- 
ture or  to  hang  pictures  tastefully,  or  to  select 


SENSORY  EDUCATION  99 

paper,  carpets  or  pictures  that  appeal  to  the  eye. 
Unpracticed  in  the  use  of  the  senses,  the  longer 
the  experience,  the  more  wooden  the  products. 

But  we  are  told  that  such  defects  are  simply  Cultupe 
evidence  of  lack  of  culture  or  poverty  of  taste,  therefine- 

A  i      j.i  •  •  j        TJ.  mentofthe 

Agreed :  the  term  taste  is  expressive,  and  culture  senses, 
means  a  refinement  of  all  the  senses.     The  cul- 
tured man  sees  well ;  the  tawdry  and  the  slovenly 
are  as  offensive  to  his  eye  as  the  coarse,  the  ill- 
bred,  and  the  obscene  are  repugnant  to  his  mind. 

We  too  often  think  that  we  are  studying  a  sub- 
ject when,  in  fact,  we  are  only  studying  what 
some  one  else  has  said  about  it.     The  young 
teacher  often  fancies  that  he  is  studying  psychol- 
ogy, when  he  is  merely  learning  its  terminology, 
memorizing  definitions,  and  repeating  technicali- 
ties, when  he  does  not  know  how  to  study  his  own 
mind  or  the  nature  of  the  children  that  cluster 
around  him  every  day.    It  never  occurs  to  him  Tliegtu 
that  right  at  hand,  inviting  his  finest  thought,  are  of  books 
the  living  creatures  whose  features  are  so  feebly  subject, 
portrayed  in  the  weary  pages  of  a  lifeless  book. 
To  study  psychology  is  to  study  children ;  to  learn 
botany  is  to  learn  plants. 

First  hand  knowledge  may  not  always  be  the 
most  scientifically  accurate,  but  it  leads  ultimately 
to  the  safest  conclusions.  We  rely  with  a  greater 
sense  of  security  upon  our  own  impressions.  We 
feel  surer  and  safer  in  dealing  with  what  we  know 
for  ourselves.  We  proceed  with  more  confidence 
when  relying  upon  our  own  knowledge  ; '  gathered 
where  knowledge  grows".  We  get  the  best  flavor 


100 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


of  the  peach,  if  we  pluck  it  ourselves  from  the 
tree. 

In  the  courts  of  the  country,  a  witness,  as  a 
general  rule,  is  not  permitted  to  give  "  hearsay 
testimony ".  He  must  tell  only  what  he  saw  or 
heard,  himself;  not  what  another  saw  or  heard. 
This  principle  of  testimony  is  founded  upon  the 
fundamental  doctrine  that  knowledge  gained  di- 
rectly through  the  senses  is  most  reliable.  If  all 
men  were  absolutely  truthful  and  incorruptible, 
the  details  of  a  transaction  might  be  transmitted 
through  a  dozen  individuals  without  material 
alteration,  but  the  chances  are  that  in  passing 
through  half  so  many  they  would  be  unrecogniz- 
ably mutilated.  We  revive  only  our  own  images. 
We  can  not  transmit  them  to  others.  Of  ten  men 
sitting  around  a  table  each  sees  a  different  object. 
Each  sees  the  table  from  a  different  view  point. 
No  one  of  the  ten  can  tell  the  second  one  exactly 
what  he  sees,  and  the  second  can  not  describe  to 
the  remaining  eight  just  what  the  first  said  he 
saw.  Photographs  of  the  same  garden  taken  from 
different  points  will  all  appear  different,  some 
feature  of  each  will  be  wanting  in  all  the  others. 
Let  a  student  make  a  careful  drawing  of  a  craw- 
fish; then  let  a  second  student  copy  the  drawing 
of  the  first,  a  third  student,  the  drawing  of  the 
second,  and  then  compare  the  drawing  of  the 
third  student  with  the  crawfish  itself,  and  note  the 
want  of  resemblance.  A  student  once  had  at- 
tempted a  copy  of  a  portrait  of  his  father.  Show- 
ing the  copy  to  his  brother,  he  asked  an  opinion 
of  the  merit  of  the  drawing,  and  received  this 


SENSORY 


comment,  "It  would  be  a  pretty  good  picture,  if 
you  could  find  anybody  for  it  to  favor". 

It  may  be  urged  that  there  is  no  general  power 
of  observation;  that  exercises  which  train  the  powers- 
observation  in  one  direction  do  not  cultivate  it  in 
all  directions,  and  that  the  guest  who  recalls  only 
the  apparel  of  the  visitors  is  a  case  in  point.  The 
fact  that  one  recalls  only  one  class  of  percepts 
when  upon  occasions  many  classes  are  available, 
only  proves  that  he  who  observes  but  one  class 
has  been  poorly  trained  in  the  use  of  the  senses. 

As  a  teacher,  I  once  had  an  experience  which 
illustrates  the  soundness  of  the  doctrine  that 
safest  knowledge  comes  through  sense  experi- 
ences. I  had  many  times  tried  earnestly  (and  I  ^£^ion9 
thought  intelligently)  to  explain  to  pupils  what  always  iseat. 
the  textbooks  call  the  "phosphorescent  sea"  —  a 
phenomenon  arising  from  the  presence  at  certain 
times  of  "innumerable,  microscopic,  phosphores- 
cent, animalculae",  and  I  had  congratulated  my- 
self more  than  once  upon  having  illumined  this 
interesting  and  beautiful  phenomenon.  But  one 
night,  as  I  went  with  a  sail-boat  party  across 
Matagorda  Bay,  it  happened  that  these  "micro- 
scopic organisms"  were  having  a  regular  jubilee, 
and  our  boat  cut  through  them  a  path  of  living 
fire,  and  every  disturbed  porpoise  left  a  shining 
streak  behind  him.  I  then  realized  fully  how 
signally  I  had  failed  to  give  my  pupils  even  a 
faint  conception  of  the  gorgeous  spectacle. 

Standing  one  morning  on  the  beach  in  a  city 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  I  overheard  a  man  remark, 
as  he  stood  transfixed  before  the  phalanxes  roll- 


102         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

ing  in  from  the  deep,  "I  am  going  right  home  and 
bring  all  my  family  here  to  see  this.  If  I  had 
had  any  idea  it  looked  this  way,  I  would  have 
come  here  twenty  years  ago". 

Of  course,  this  man  had  some  previous  kind  of 
conception  of  what  a  great  body  of  water  is,  but 
never  until  it  presented  itself  "in  person"  had  he 
valued  its  acquaintance  or  cared  to  present  it  to 
his  family. 

That  people  everywhere  are  careless  observers, 
we  have  abundant  proof.  Many  who  all  their 
lives  have  been  readers  of  books,  and  newspapers, 
have  never  taken  pains  to  observe  how  the  letters 
are  formed,  and  their  attempts  to  reproduce  them 
from  memory  show  their  lack  of  accurate  sense 
perception.  Mistakes  in  the  form  of  the  letters 
"N"  and  "S"  are  most  common.  Look  from 
your  car  window,  as  you  pass  through  any  sec- 
tion of  the  country,  and  observe  the  rude  signs 
displayed  in  the  shop  districts  of  the  cities,  and 
you  will  meet  such  exhibitions  as  these : 

EHOE    ZHOP 
REPA1RIMG  I/fEATLY  DOUE 

Examples  of  this  kind  might  be  cited  indefinitely 
to  show  that  in  order  to  form  correct  images  one 
must  have  received  correct  sensations.  To  exer- 
cise the  senses  well  in  perceiving  the  differences 
of  objects,  is  to  lay  the  foundation  for  all  knowl- 
edge, all  skill  and  all  discreet  and  cultured  action 
in  the  course  of  one's  life.  Because  of  the  neglect 
of  sense  training  in  the  schools,  because  the 
mastery  of  many  subjects  is  undertaken  by  ab- 


SENSORY  EDUCATION  103 

stract  rather  than  concrete  methods,  instruction 
becomes  irksome  to  the  teacher,  study  burden- 
some to  the  pupil,  and  thoughts,  ideas,  and  con- 
ceptions are  confused  and  unreliable. 

The  laboratory  method  of  teaching  the  natural 
sciences  is  now  universally  adopted,  and  the 
method  has  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  needing 
either  defense  or  explanation.  The  chief  virtue 
of  the  method  consists  in  that  the  students  are  of  the 
made  to  use  their  senses,  and  not  required  or  per- 
mitted  to  rely  solely  upon  authority.  They  are 
required  to  perform  experiments,  to  verify  for- 
mulas, to  test  the  truth  of  laws,  and  to  apply  them 
to  things  that  they  can  see.  The  time  was  when 
physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  other  sciences 
were  taught  altogether  from  textbooks,  but,  hap- 
pily, that  time  has  passed.  The  laboratory 
method,  modified  to  suit  the  subject  and  the  con- 
ditions, is  now  also  used  in  the  teaching  of  several 
other  subjects.  Geography  and  nature  study  are 
best  taught  through  the  images  that  children  have 
acquired  through  their  outdoor  experiences.  Any 
science  that  does  not  bring  the  student  face  to 
face  with  concrete  objects  is  now  regarded  as  a 
farce.  Modern  methods  utilize  all  the  experi- 
ences  of  the  child.  Modern  teachers  have  learned 
finally  that  books  do  not  contain  all  the  knowledge 
that  children  should  acquire,  and  that  the  knowl- 
edge gained  exclusively  through  books  is  less  val- 
uable, especially  for  children,  than  that  acquired 
through  personal  contact  with  objects  of  nature. 

This  doctrine  is  admirably  expressed  by  Whit- 
tier  in  "The  Barefoot  Boy". 


104         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

Knowledge  never  learned  of  schools, 
Of  the  wild  bee's  morning  chase, 
••Barefoot  Ctf  the  wild  flower's  time  and  place, 

soy."  Flight  of  fowl  and  habitude 

Of  the  tenants  of  the  wood  ; 
How  the  tortoise  bears  his  shell, 
How  the  woodchuck  digs  his  cell, 
And  the  ground  mole  sinks  his  well  ; 
How  the  robin  feeds  her  young, 
How  the  oriole's  nest  is  hung; 
Where  the  whitest  lilies  blow, 
Where  the  freshest  berries  grow, 
Where  the  ground-nut  trails  its  vine, 
Where  the  wood-grape's  clusters  shine; 
Of  the  black  wasp's  cunning  way, 
Mason  of  his  walls  of  clay, 
And  architectural  plans 
Of  gray  hornet  artisans! 
For,  eschewing  books  and  tasks, 
Nature  answers  all  he  asks  ; 
Hand  in  hand  with  her  he  walks, 
Face  to  face  with  her  he  talks. 


When  all  things  I  heard  or 
Me,  their  master,  waited  for. 
I  was  rich  in  flowers  and  trees, 
Humming  birds  and  honey-bees; 
For  my  sport  the  squirrel  played, 
Plied  the  snouted  mole  his  spade  ; 
For  my  taste  the  blackberry  cone 
Purpled  over  hedge  and  stone  ; 
Laughed  the  brook  for  my  delight 
Through  the  day  and  through  the  night, 


SENSORY  EDUCATION  105 

Whispering  at  the  garden  wall, 
Talked  with  me  from  fall  to  fall ; 
Mine  the  sand-rimmed  pickerel  pond, 
Mine  the  walnut  slopes  beyond, 
Mine,  on  bending  orchard  trees, 
Apples  of  Hesperides! 

The  laboratory  method  is  one  phase  of  the  gen- 
eral method  of  teaching,  based  upon  inductive 
philosophy,  the  influence  of  which,  within  the  last 
hundred  years,  has  transformed  the  educational, 
commercial  and  industrial  life  of  the  world, 
brought  into  existence  new  arts,  new  industries, 
new  systems  of  government,  new  processes  of 
manufacture,  and  new  methods  of  communication 
and  transportation,  and  established  new  ideals  of 
schools,  society,  and  education.  Inductive  phil- 
osophy seeks  the  truth  through  the  practical  and 
concrete ;  it  is  distinguished  by  the  importance  it 
attaches  to  the  method  of  gaining  percepts, — by 
the  sense  process.  Its  observations  are  careful, 
and  it  is  equally  painstaking  in  recording  observa- 
tions and  making  inferences,  testing  by  experi- 
ment, finding  the  relation  of  every  fact  to  other 
facts,  and  determining  the  limitations  of  its  appli- 
cation. It  means  intelligent  use  of  the  eyes,  the 
ears,  the  touch,  and  the  hands. 

It  is  only  in  comparatively  recent  years  that 
recognition  has  been  given  to  the  fact  that  defects 
in  the  senses,  especially  in  sight  and  hearing, 
have  been  the  cause  of  retardation  and  supposed 
mental  deficiency  of  many  children ;  most  teachers 
formerly  taking  it  for  granted  that  if  the  child 


106 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Tlie  use  of 
pictures. 


has  eyes  he  can  see,  and  if  he  has  ears  he  can 
hear. 

Many  devices  and  methods  are  now  used  to 
make  the  work  of  the  school  appeal  to  the  senses 
of  the  child.  Among  the  first  devices  used  was 
the  map.  By  means  of  the  map  the  child  gets  a 
mental  picture  of  the  shape  of  a  division  of  land 
and  water,  and  of  its  size  relative  to  that  of  other 
divisions.  The  ordinary  map,  printed  on  a  flat 
surface,  has  been  greatly  improved  in  recent 
years.  Schools  are  now  supplied  with  relief  maps, 
which  illustrate  not  only  the  shape  of  a  continent 
or  an  island,  but  show  its  elevations  and  depres- 
sions, its  mountains  and  valleys,  river  basins  and 
ocean  depressions,  so  that  through  the  sense  of 
sight  the  child  is  brought  into  a  knowledge  of  the 
physical  features  of  the  different  divisions  of  the 
earth. 

Nearly  all  textbooks  are  now  illustrated.  The 
art  of  picture  making  has  kept  pace  with  the  pro- 
gress of  science.  In  no  other  department  of  sci- 
ence has  there  been  more  remarkable  advance 
than  in  photography,  engraving,  and  all  other 
phases  of  picture  making.  The  excellence  of  all 
classes  of  pictures  and  their  comparatively  small 
cost  have  caused  their  extensive  use  in  the  educa- 
tion of  children.  Not  only  are  all  elementary  text 
books  well  illustrated,  but  picture  charts  and  wall 
pictures  are  used  in  the  schoolroom.  The  im- 
proved stereopticon  has  become  a  valuable  adjunct 
in  sense  training  or  visual  instruction.  Several 
firms  in  the  United  States  now  make  a  specialty 
of  manufacturing  slides  for  the  teaching  of  his- 


SENSORY   EDUCATION  107 

tory,  geography,  art,  and  all  phases  of  agriculture, 
botany,  physical  geography,  and  nearly  all  other 
subjects  usually  taught  in  the  elementary  and  the 
high  school.  We  are  just  now  entering  upon  a  stereopticon. 
new  picture  era,  that  of  the  "moving  picture". 
The  moving  picture  business  has  already  assumed 
vast  proportions.  Many  thousands  of  men  and 
women  are  employed,  and  many  millions  of  dollars 
invested  in  its  various  branches  of  manufacture 
and  exhibition.  The  throngs  that  attend  the  ex- 
hibitions throughout  the  country  testify  to  the 
popular  appreciation  of  this  new  form  of  amuse- 
ment and  instruction.  The  portrayal  of  noted 
historical  events,  the  details  of  famous  battles, 
and  of  other  noteworthy  incidents,  has  given  them 
a  new  interest,  and  animated  the  hitherto  dry 
pages  of  history. 

The  school  will  soon  appropriate  this  twentieth 
century  method  of  teaching  many  of  the  subjects 
that  now  suffer  for  want  of  visualization.  The 
modern  photo-engraving  surpasses  the  old  wood- 
cut of  our  fathers,  that  always  had  difficulty  in 
finding  "anything  for  it  to  favor".  Superior  to 
the  photo-engraving  is  the  colored  picture  pro- 
jected by  the  stereopticon,  where  on  the  screen  it 
may  be  studied  by  the  class  as  a  whole,  and  it  now 
seems  that  the  moving  picture,  that  enriches  the 
scene  with  living  creatures,  rushing  torrents,  and 
rolling  billows,  is  the  climax  of  appliances  for 
sense  training. 

Drawing,  both  mechanical  and  freehand,  should  Drawlnff. 
have  a  place  in  every  elementary  course  of  study. 
It  trains  simultaneously  the  eye  and  the  hand,  and 


108 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Visualizing* 
the  subject 
matter. 


Making 

problem* 

concrete. 


The  real 


purpose  < 
drawing. 


of 


gives  the  child  early  in  its  career  a  correct  sense 
of  symmetry  and  proportion.  Map  drawing  in- 
vests geography  with  a  new  interest;  many  an 
exercise  in  arithmetic,  meaningless  under  the  old 
methods,  becomes  attractive  when  the  child  is 
taught  to  apply  the  foot-rule  or  the  yard-stick  in 
reducing  it  to  a  concrete  problem.  Whenever  a 
mathematical  problem  can  be  visualized,  the  intel- 
ligent teacher  will  so  treat  it.  How  meaningless 
to  the  child  are  all  the  "examples"  usually  given 
in  "denominate  numbers''  unless  the  actual 
weights  and  measures,  the  pound,  the  quart  cup, 
the  yard  measure,  etc.,  are  present  to  the  senses ! 
Drawing  provides  the  child  with  an  additional 
language.  It  is  one  of  the  universal  languages, 
and  it  supplies  an  additional  and  effective  means 
for  self  expression.  A  striking  cartoon  that  con- 
denses an  event  or  a  series  of  events  into  the 
narrow  limits  of  a  visible  image  often  wields  a 
greater  influence  upon  the  public  mind  than  the 
most  logical  and  statesmanlike  editorial. 

Some  drawing  teachers  blunder  by  confining 
the  activities  of  the  pupil  to  producing  copies  of 
the  drawings  of  others.  Imitation  is  the  ped- 
agogical plan  for  beginners,  but  no  one  ever  be- 
comes self  expressive  by  copying  the  language  of 
another,  whether  it  is  expressed  in  words,  ges- 
tures, drawings  or  paintings.  In  the  teaching  of 
drawing,  the  pupil  should  be  taken  as  soon  as 
possible  to  nature  for  models.  The  teacher  should 
understand,  also,  that  learning  to  draw  is  not  the 
sole  object  of  drawing.  The  chief  benefit  derived 
from  the  exercise  is  the  acquisition  of  a  knowl- 


SENSORY   EDUCATION  109 

edge  of  the  object  drawn.  The  pupil  is  required 
to  draw  maps,  but  not  for  the  purpose  of  be- 
coming an  expert  maker  of  maps.  Eequiring  the 
pupil  to  devote  the  amount  of  time  necessary  to 
become  skilful  in  map  drawing  is  frequently  an 
abuse  of  the  exercise.  Accuracy  in  drawing  should 
be  insisted  upon,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
insuring  accurate  knowledge  of  the  object  studied. 

When  a  young  student  reported  for  the  first 
time  to  the  laboratory  of  Professor  Agassiz,  the 
professor  gave  him  a  trilobite,  a  notebook,  a  piece 
of  drawing  paper,  and  a  pencil,  and  requested 
him  to  study  the  trilobite  all  day;  to  write  what 
he  saw,  and  to  make  a  drawing  of  the  trilobite.  Valueof 
At  the  end  of  the  day  Professor  Agassiz  examined 
the  drawing  and  said, '  *  Go  right  on,  you  have  not 
yet  seen  half  of  it".  This  process  continued  three 
days  without  any  assistance,  direction,  or  sugges- 
tion from  the  teacher,  the  pupil  being  required  to 
see  for  himself  and  to  express  himself. 

Music  as  a  subject  for  sense  training  and  self 
expression  deserves  more  attention  even  now  than 
it  usually  receives.  Nearly  all  cities  of  the  coun- 
try now  provide  instruction  in  vocal  music  for  all 
the  children.  Even  to  be  able  to  sing  simple  songs  JS£ie0of 
from  memory  is  a  useful  attainment.  To  be  able 
to  read  music,  and  later  to  interpret  and  to  feel 
it  is  as  valuable  an  accomplishment  as  to  read  and 
understand  any  other  language.  The  practice  of 
music  has  one  distinct  advantage  over  drawing  in 
the  class  room.  It  permits  "team  work",  co-op- 
erative effort.  Taught  to  classes,  it  not  only 
permits  but  demands  unity  of  action.  There  is 


110         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

no  exercise  that  demands  a  greater  combination 
of  all  the  senses  and  faculties  at  one  time  than 
the  artistic  rendition  of  a  piece  of  instrumental 
music.  Dr.  Eliot  says,  "Did  you  ever  watch  an 
organist  playing  an  organ  with  several  banks  of 
keys  and  many  pedals?  That  process,  particu- 
larly when  the  organist  plays  from  memory,  is 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  exhibitions  of  the 
simultaneous  action  of  many  parts  of  the  nervous 
system  of  which  the  human  being  is  capable.  The 
hands  and  the  feet  move  rapidly  and  rhythmically, 
each  hand  and  each  foot  being  separate  from  the 
other  in  its  motions ;  each  finger  works  separately ; 
the  ear  takes  instant  note  of  the  time  and  the 
harmony  and  of  many  details  in  the  volume  of 
sound ;  and  then  the  memory  is  at  work  in  repro- 
ducing the  composition  from  a  record  which  exists 
at  the  moment  only  in  the  brain  of  the  player. 
For  an  effective  training  of  that  complex  nervous 
system  which  serves  what  is  called  the  mind, 
playing  upon  a  musical  instrument,  or  singing, 
excels  every  other  training  of  the  nervous  system 
to  coordinate  action,  simultaneous  within  a  frac- 
tion of  a  second,  the  coordination  of  all  the  nerves 
and  senses  in  action  being  often  intense  and 
intensely  enjoy  able  ". 

A  recent  and  valuable  aid  in  teaching  music  is 
hono  ra  h  *ne  Pnono§raph  which  is  being  rapidly  appro- 
Plated  by  the  school  for  the  cultivation  of  a  pure 
musical  taste.  At  only  a  nominal  cost,  consid- 
ering the  number  it  serves,  every  school  can  no\V 
be  supplied  with  this  marvelous  product  of  man's 
ingenuity.  The  phonograph  gives  every  day 


SENSORY   EDUCATION  111 

faithful  reproductions  of  the  music  masters,  and 
it  enables  every  school  to  give  a  graded  course 
in  music  appreciation,  besides  proving  remark- 
ably helpful  in  teaching  singing  in  the  common 
schools. 

Music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  may  be  called 
an  intensely  "domestic  art".  What  can  serve 
more  effectively  to  keep  children  off  the  streets, 
from  leaving  the  home  for  entertainment,  amuse- 
ment and  self  expression  than  music  in  the  home, 
where  all  can  participate!  One  of  the  happiest 
families  that  I  have  ever  known  was  one  in  which 
every  member  of  the  family  had  a  place  in  the 
"home  orchestra". 

Industrial  training,  more  particularly  those 
phases  of  it  included  in  agriculture,  manual  train- 
ing, and  domestic  science,  has  grown  in  popularity 
during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years,  for  the 
reason  that  it  brings  the  student  face  to  face  with 
the  most  concrete  and  practical  problems  of  life. 

Elementary  agriculture,  as  it  can  be  taught  in 
the  high  schools,  not  only  trains  the  perception 
and  the  judgment  but  furnishes  many  forms  of 
genuinely  useful  information.  The  germination  Agriculture, 
of  seeds,  cultivation  of  the  soil,  processes  of 
grafting  and  budding,  soil  inoculation,  drainage, 
value  of  seed  selection,  nutritive  value  of  differ- 
ent feeds,  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  methods  of 
testing  milk  and  of  producing  clean  milk  and 
butter,  destructive  insects  and  methods  of  their 
control,  are  all  questions  germane  to  the  work. 

In  manual  training  an  excellent  experience  is 
provided  for  the  eye  and  the  hand.  Excellent 


112 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  home 
formerly  an 
industrial 
educational 
agency. 


drill  is  insured  by  the  course  in  mechanical  draw- 
ing. Skill  in  the  use  of  tools  and  machinery  in 
constructing  articles  of  furniture  is  acquired. 
One  of  the  most  valuable,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  the  strictly  concrete  exercises, 
requiring  accuracy  of  eye,  hand,  and  judgment, 
is  found  in  the  student's  process  of  moulding  or 
forging  an  article  of  iron.  1,  he  makes  an  ac- 
curate drawing  of  what  he  has  planned  in  his 
mind.  2,  he  fashions  a  wooden  model  of  it  from 
the  drawing.  3,  he  makes  a  cast  of  the  model  in 
plaster  of  Paris.  4,  he  moulds  the  article. 

Domestic  science  takes  the  student  into  a  field 
that  is  preeminently  utilitarian.  The  proper 
method  of  preparing  food  has  a  practical  applica- 
tion in  every  household,  and  other  phases  of  the 
subject  are  as  useful  in  their  application  as  cook- 
ing. A  course  in  domestic  science  should  prepare 
the  young  woman  to  preside  over  a  home  and 
direct  its  affairs  intelligently  and  joyfully.  The 
course  should  include  not  only  the  preparation  of 
food — including  cooking — but  all  those  subjects 
that  pertain  to  the  administration  of  a  home — the 
kitchen,  the  dairy,  the  laundry,  the  parlor,  the 
bedroom  and  the  nursery.  Instruction  should  be 
given  in  subjects  that  pertain  not  only  to  the 
practical  or  useful,  but  also  to  the  ornamental. 
The  home  ought  to  be  not  only  clean,  tidy,  and 
sanitary;  it  should  be  also  beautiful. 

Industrial  training  in  the  school  is  more  neces- 
sary now  than  ever  before.  The  time  was  when 
every  family  felled  the  trees  and  built  its  house, 
made  its  furniture,  wove  its  clothes,  and  crudely 


SENSORY  EDUCATION  113 

manufactured  nearly  all  utensils  and  tools  em- 
ployed in  the  home  or  in  the  field.  In  those  days 
every  boy  and  girl  had  a  part  in  these  industries 
and  thus  received  a  practical  training  that  the 
home  under  modern  conditions  can  not  provide. 

The  introduction  of  mechanical  and  industrial 
training  in  the  schools  has  been  a  protest  against  not  t>l 
the  once  prevalent  idea  that  education  was  a  thing  dls< 
apart  from  the  actualities  of  life,  having  only 
culture  for  its  goal.  But  there  are  some  dangers 
attending  the  new  education.  When  we  conclude 
that  man  is  not  educated  by  books  alone,  we  must 
guard  against  the  other  extreme  of  attempting  to 
educate  without  books.  While  education  must 
deal  with  the  concrete,  the  abstract  is  still  as  vital 
as  ever.  Learning  to  see  and  to  hear  intelligently, 
and  to  work  skilfully  with  the  hands,  does  not 
make  the  sum  total  of  a  liberal  education.  Educa- 
tion is  a  development  from  the  ability  to  handle 
concrete  things  to  the  ability  to  handle  and  to 
comprehend  abstract  things.  The  trained  mind  is 
one  that  can  pass  readily  from  the  concrete  to 
the  abstract.  The  student  must  be  so  trained  that 
he  can  pass  easily  from  arithmetic,  which  deals 
with  concrete  numbers,  to  algebra,  which  deals 
in  symbols  representing  general  (abstract)  quan- 
tity. 

The  workman  deals  only  with  the  concrete 
object;  he  shapes  and  fashions  the  materials  The  work, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  mechanic.  The  me- 
chanic  deals  with  both  the  object  and  the  drawing, 
which  is  the  abstract  representation  of  the  object. 
He  is  under  the  direction  of  the  architect.  The 


114 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


architect  deals  with  both  the  object  and  the  draw- 
ing, and  also  with  the  more  abstract  vision,  which, 
to  become  of  practical  utility,  must  be  reduced  to 
the  drawing,  and  then  to  the  material  form.  The 
architect  plans;  the  mechanic  interprets;  the 
workman  performs.  The  workman  employs  per- 
ception, the  mechanic  perception  and  conception, 
the  architect  perception,  conception,  and  imagina- 
tion. The  workman  is  practical ;  the  mechanic  is 
practical  and  executive ;  the  architect  is  practical, 
executive,  and  theoretical. 

There  is  also  the  danger  of  too  great  reliance 
upon  laboratories  and  equipments.  Properly  to 
serve  the  purposes  of  education,  these  must  be 
intelligently  used.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  for 
an  institution  to  have  all  manner  of  apparatus  if 
it  is  not  used?  None  greater  than  that  of  having 
a  great  library  when  the  books  are  not  read.  As 
a  library  is  a  place  to  read  and  not  to  hear  the 
librarian  read,  so  is  a  laboratory  a  place  to  work 
and  not  to  see  the  teacher  work. 

Nothing  in,  about,  or  around  a  school  ought  to 
be  for  show.  Constant  pandering  by  an  educa- 
tional institution  to  popular  applause,  exploita- 
tion of  so-called  advantages,  in  the  way  of  build- 
ings and  equipment  is  undignified,  if  not  repre- 
hensible. 

Another  danger  is  worth  calling  attention  to. 
That  is  the  note  book  abuse.  The  scientist  in  his 
investigations  carefully  records  all  his  observa- 
tions and  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  recalling 
easily  the  facts  discovered.  They  become  his 
authority  in  subsequent  investigations.  He  refers 


SENSORY  EDUCATION  115 

to  his  notes  constantly.  But  the  student  is  too 
often  trained  to  put  in  his  notebook  the  things 
he  should  put  into  his  head.  Gradually  he  ac- 
quires the  idea  that  whenever  the  result  of  an 
investigation  or  an  experiment  is  recorded,  the 
work  is  finished.  He  depends  too  often  upon 
things  in  his  note  book  when  they  ought  to  be  in 
his  mind.  If  a  fire  should  consume  his  board- 
house,  it  would  burn  up  all  he  knows. 

It  would  be  well  for  every  teacher  to  call  upon 
the  pupil  occasionally  to  discuss  his  own  notes 
before  the  class.  So  thoroughly  has  the  note  book 
fetich  possessed  the  student  that  it  is  not  an  in- 
frequent occurrence  that  one  presents  his  note 
book  as  his  qualification  for  entrance  to  college 
with  advanced  standing  without  examination. 
The  note  book  "fad"  attacks  all  departments  of 
the  school,  it  invades  the  precincts  of  subjects 
that  should  be  carried  at  all  times  in  the  mind. 
We  find  note  books  in  geometry,  in  which  the 
"originals"  are  solved,  note  books  in  history,  in 
which  dates  are  recorded,  note  books  in  arith- 
metic, in  grammar,  and  in  spelling.  When  we 
think  of  the  absurdity  of  some  of  these  records, 
we  are  reminded  of  the  man  who  spent  his  time 
preparing  an  index  to  the  dictionary. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

THE  CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION. 

Man  is  dependent  for  all  primary  knowledge 
Helen  uPon  *ne  sense  avenues  between  his  mind  and  the 
external  world.  Probably  the  greatest  triumph 
of  the  teacher's  art  is  exhibited  in  the  case  of 
Helen  Keller,  who,  though  blind  and  deaf  from 
early  childhood,  with  the  two  most  important 
avenues  closed,  has  been  developed  into  a  cul- 
tured woman,  accomplished  in  several  languages, 
and  conversant  with  all  the  great  economic  and 
educational  movements  of  ancient  and  modern 
times.  What,  in  her  case,  seems  more  wonderful 
still,  is  that  she,  who  has  no  recollection  of  having 
ever  heard  a  sound,  has  cultivated  her  vocal 
organs  until  she  can  speak  her  mother  tongue,  and 
can  discard  the  usual  methods  of  the  blind  and 
deaf  in  the  expression  of  thought.  Miss  Keller 
has  been  educated  through  the  remarkable  de- 
velopment of  the  sense  of  touch.  Had  that  avenue 
been  closed  and  the  remaining  senses  been  want- 
ing also,  there  would  have  been  no  means  of  con- 
veying a  sensation  to  her  mind,  or  of  drawing 
from  it  the  faintest  gleam  of  intelligence.  The 
external  world,  and  even  her  own  personality, 
would  have  remained  to  her  unknown,  and  her 


THE   CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION  117 

mind,  if  a  dormant  brain  could  be  called  a  mind, 
would  have  been  an  untenanted  void. 

But  the  senses  can  convey  to  the  brain  only 
the  impressions  they  receive.  They  do  not  pro- 
vide  real  knowledge.  The  sense  organs  of  idiots, 
insane  persons,  and  the  lower  animals,  are  as  well 
developed  physiologically  as  those  of  the  most  in- 
telligent scholar  or  the  most  learned  scientist. 
Man,  after  all  his  training,  is  weak  in  contrast  to 
the  lower  animals  in  the  acuteness  of  the  physical 
senses.  Through  the  sense  of  smell  the  wolf 
traces  unerringly  the  path  of  a  deer  many  hours 
after  it  has  gone.  Such  achievement  is  impossible 
for  man.  Through  the  sense  of  hearing  the  deer 
perceives  the  approach  of  an  enemy  when  it  is  still  Acute  sense* 
far  away.  The  breaking  of  a  twig  or  the  rustle  of  anlmal8- 
of  a  leaf  is  conveyed  to  him  over  long  stretches 
of  wood  or  plain.  The  hawk,  as  he  glides  rapidly 
over  the  grass  grown  field,  discovers  the  hiding 
hare  where  man  would  pass  him  without  notice. 

The  use  made  of  the  impressions  received 
through  the  senses  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
brain  by  which  they  are  received.  Before  they 
are  available  for  service,  these  impressions  must 
be  worked  over,  refined  as  it  were,  as  the  crude 
ore  is  smelted  before  the  pure  metal  is  obtained. 

Perception.— The  function  of  the  brain  that  in- 
terprets   the   impressions   received   through  the  tation- 
senses  is  mind.    The  senses  are  called  the  pre-  perception. 
sentative  faculties,  their  special  function  is  called 
sensation,  and  the  function  of  the  mind  that  refers 
these  sensations  to  the  objects  that  produce  them 
is  called  perception.     Sensation  and  perception 


118 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Observation. 


Percept. 


Image. 


Imagination. 


Complete 
perception 
depends  upon 
previous 
experience. 


together  constitute  observation.  The  knowledge 
of  an  object  gained  through  observation,  that  is 
through  one  or  more  of  the  senses,  and  referred 
to  its  cause,  it  called  a  percept.  The  percept  is 
the  interpreted  sensation.  A  percept,  when  once 
in  the  mind,  may  be  revived  when  the  object  pro- 
ducing it  has  been  removed  and  is  no  longer  in 
position  to  affect  any  one  of  the  senses.  This 
revived  effect  is  not,  itself,  a  percept,  but  a  copy 
of  a  percept,  and  is  called  an  image.  The  process 
of  forming  images,  or  reviving  percepts,  is  called 
imagination. 

From  the  foregoing  definition  of  perception,  it 
is  evident  that  what  is  gained  through  the  senses 
alone  does  not  determine  the  significance  of  the 
percept.  In  no  two  individual  minds,  observing 
the  same  object,  is  formed  the  same  percept  or  is 
awakened  the  same  train  of  thought.  What  a 
flower  is  to  the  botanist  is  quite  a  different  thing 
from  what  it  is  to  the  artist.  Previous  experi- 
ences, biases,  prejudices,  even  present  mental  or 
physical  conditions,  all  exert  a  determining  influ- 
ence upon  the  significance  of  a  percept.  We  may 
all  see  the  same  thing,  but  no  two  see  it  alike. 
Each  gives  his  own  coloring  to  what  he  sees.  We 
may  all  hear  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time,  and 
from  the  same  point,  but  no  two  of  us  can  recall 
the  same  sounds,  or  reproduce  the  same  con- 
versation. What  each  sees  is  modified  by  what 
is  in  his  mind  at  the  time;  what  each  recalls  is 
determined  by  what  part  of  it  is  most  interesting 
to  him.  Every  book  we  read,  every  picture  we 
see,  depends  for  its  interpretation  upon  our 


THE   CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION  119 

former  experiences.    If  there  has  been  a  paucity 
of  experiences,  there  is  a  weakness  of  the  percept. 

Apperception. — The  function  of  the  mind  that 
interprets  the  percept  in  the  light  of  past  experi- 
ences, combines  it  with  images  of  former  percepts, 
unifying  them  into  a  new  and  more  comprehen- 
sive percept,  is  called  apperception.  It  is  through 
apperception  that  the  mind  groups  related  ideas, 
enlarges  the  groups  by  the  addition  of  new  per- 
cepts and  new  experiences,  correlates  all  the  ac- 
quisitions in  all  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  raises 
the  standards  by  which  we  form  judgments,  and 
comparisons.  This  principle  of  mental  activity  is 
meant  when  we  say  that  the  natural  order  is  Sown  to  the 
"from  the  known  to  the  unknown".  Whenever  unkn 
the  child  meets  a  new  object,  he  names  it  in  con- 
formity to  some  past  experience.  His  use  of 
words  and  his  coining  of  new  words  can  always 
be  traced  to  ideas  back  of  him.  A  child,  whose 
father  had  just  brought  home  some  doves,  said: 
*  '  Mamma,  may  I  pick  the  leaves  off  these  birds ' '  ? 
At  another  time,  finding  his  little  brother  had  run 
his  hand  into  a  stovepipe  that  was  lying  in  the 
yard,  he  said:  "Mamma,  the  baby  has  put  his 
hand  into  the  chimney-post  and  got  shoe-black  all 
over  him."  Through  apperception  the  mind  is 
continually  interpreting  new  facts  by  means  of 
ideas  already  in  possession. 

Apperception  is  not  a  distinct  mental  process. 
It  is  one  of  the  components  of  every  significant 
percept,  and  as  such  it  enters  vitally  into  all  the  J 
processes  of  learning  and  largely  determines  the 
efficacy  of  the  processes  of  teaching.  It  com- 


120 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Chancres  in 
the  concepts. 


Growth  of 
concept!. 


prises  the  processes  of  evolution  and  assimilation. 
Our  standards  of  morals,  of  men,  of  beauty,  of 
utility,  even  of  size  and  distance  are  being  con- 
tinually revised,  because  our  new  experiences  are 
constantly  enriching  our  mental  content  and  dis- 
covering to  us  the  deficiency  of  the  percepts  pre- 
viously formed.  We  are  continually  revising  our 
estimates.  Wealth  of  experience  changes  our 
standards.  Our  first  teacher  was  in  our  estima- 
tion accomplished  in  all  the  arts  and  graces  that 
mark  a  great  man.  When  we  meet  him  after 
many  years  we  find  that  a  great  change  has  come 
over  him.  He  has  lost  in  scholarship,  in  general 
knowledge,  in  intellectuality.  We  wonder  what 
has  befallen  him.  But  he  may  have,  in  fact,  not 
changed  one  whit.  We  ourselves  have  changed. 
Since  we  first  knew  him  we  have  met  many  men 
of  superior  attainments,  and  our  ideal  of  men  has 
changed. 

We  have  a  distinct  recollection  of  the  home  of 
our  childhood.  We  remember  the  orchard,  the 
garden,  the  cow-lot,  and  the  well;  the  path  that 
led  to  the  spring,  and  the  huge  oaks  that  skirted 
the  road.  When  we  return  after  many  years  we 
are  surprised  to  find  that  everything  has  shrunk. 
The  trees  are  not  so  tall;  even  the  hills  are  not 
so  high;  the  well  seems  nearly  filled  up,  and  the 
spring  has  been  brought  nearer  the  house.  The 
house  itself  has  lost  in  size  and  grandeur;  its 
ceilings  are  low,  its  halls  are  narrow,  and  alto- 
gether it  is  a  commonplace  affair.  The  old  farm 
once  so  vast  that  we  were  afraid  of  being  lost  in 
our  rambles  among  its  brakes  and  jungles,  has 


THE   CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION  121 

suffered  the  general  shrinkage.  How  changed 
seems  everything !  The  changes  seem  so  real  that 
it  is  difficult  to  discover  the  cause.  But  the  change 
has  been  in  us.  The  content  of  our  minds  has 
changed.  We  measure  by  a  new  chain;  its  links 
are  longer,  and  there  are  more  links  in  the  chain. 
The  Concept. — The  percept  contains  a  number 
of  elements,  such  as  size,  shape,  color,  structure, 
hardness,  etc.  When  the  percepts  of  the  indi- 
vidual things  we  see  agree  in  a  number  of  these 
elements  we  say  the  things  are  of  the  same  kind. 
But  the  individuals  of  a  kind  generally  differ  in  concepts, 
some  points  which  are  called  differences.  When 
percepts  of  several  specimens  of  the  same  kind 
have  been  formed  in  the  mind,  the  elements  they 
have  in  common  form  a  deep  impression,  while 
the  differences  produce  scattering,  and,  therefore, 
lighter  impressions.  The  light  impressions  van- 
ish while  the  deep  impression  has  a  more  lasting 
effect.  This  is  like  the  image  of  the  photograph- 
er's plate  of  a  composite  photograph.  This  com- 
posite image,  having  all  the  characteristics  that 
are  common  to  the  individuals  composing  the  kind 
or  class,  is  called  a  concept.  While  the  percept, 
then,  is  the  idea  of  an  individual  thing,  the  con- 
cept is  the  idea  of  a  class.  Stating  it  in  another 
way,  if  w;e  ignore  the  individual  differences  of 
several  individual  robins,  we  arrive  at  the  con- 
cept robin.  In  the  same  manner  we  form  the  con- 
cept dove,  lark  or  swallow.  If  we  consider  only 
points  of  agreement  or  similarity  among  robins, 
doves,  larks,  swallows,  etc.,  ignoring  the  class-dif- 
ferences or  differentia,  in  size,  color,  structure, 


122        PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

etc.,  we  reach  the  concept  bird.  Continuing  the 
process  we  arrive  at  the  concept  vertebrate  and 
then  animal.  The  sum  of  the  elements  involved 
in  a  concept  is  called  the  connotation,  while  the 
number  of  concrete  objects  to  which  the  term  can 
be  applied  as  a  name  is  called  denotation  of  the 
term.  The  fewer  the  elements  considered  in  form- 
ing the  concept,  or  the  less  its  connotation,  the 
wider  is  the  application  of  the  concept  or  the 
greater  its  denotation,  and  vice  versa. 

Science  is  one  aspect  of  a  system  of  concepts,  in 
which  the  concepts  of  wider  application  are  the 
higher.  The  location  of  any  concept  in  the  system 
of  knowledge  is  its  definition.  A  definition  is  gen- 
erally the  naming  of  the  superior  concept,  and  the 
additional  statement  of  the  differentia  that  dis- 
tinguish the  smaller  kind  from  other  kinds  in  the 
larger  class. 

The  fewer  the  elements  that  enter  into  a  con- 
cept, the  more  abstract  and  the  more  general  it 
is,  and  the  more  exact  will  be  our  thoughts  with 
reference  to  it.  The  mathematician  thinks  in 
general  terms  when  investigating  and  defining  the 
properties  of  triangles,  quadrilaterals,  circles, 
etc.,  and,  therefore,  his  science  can  be  more  exact. 

The  more  numerous  the  elements  that  enter  into 
a  concept  are,  the  more  concrete  and  specific  it 
is,  the  less  exact  will  be  the  thinking  in  regard 
to  it.  Hence,  the  natural  sciences,  which  deal  with 
rocks  and  plants  and  animals,  are  said  to  be 
less  exact  than  the  mathematical  and  physical 
sciences,  while  the  social  sciences,  which  deal  with 
specimens  of  the  most  complex  combinations  of 


THE  CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION  123 

qualities,  namely,  men  and  groups  of  men,  are  the 
least  exact  of  all. 

Formation  of  the  Concept.— The  process  of 
forming  concepts  are  Observation,  Comparison, 
Abstraction,  and  Generalization.  Illustrative  of 
this  and  the  preceding  paragraphs  relating  to  the 
concept,  some  things  already  stated  will  be  re- 
peated in  a  more  concrete  way.  The  student  of  .S5nofnna'" 
botany  may  begin  with  the  study  of  the  leaves  of  concepts- 
plants.  He  observes  their  differences,  and  among 
other  peculiarities  he  finds  by  comparison  that 
some  are  parallel-veined  and  others  netted- 
veined.  He  then  considers  apart  from  the  leaf 
itself  the  characteristic  of  each ;  that  is,  he  draws 
off,  abstracts  the  characteristics  for  consider- 
ation, ignoring  all  other  qualities,  as  color,  shape, 
etc.  Having  separated  the  parallel-veined  leaves 
from  the  others,  he  generalises;  that  is,  he 
applies  the  quality  of  parallel-veined  to  a  group. 
This  group  idea  is  a  concept  of  a  class,  and  the 
entire  process  by  which  it  is  reached  is  the  bota- 
nist's  method  of  classification. 

In  observation,  comparison,  and  abstraction,  a 
limited  number  of  objects  is  considered,  and  some 
quality  or  characteristic  common  to  all  is  selected, 
but  in  generalization  the  mind  classifies  into  one 
group  not  only  all  the  individual  objects  examined 
that  have  the  characteristics,  but  all  other  objects 
that  possess  such  characteristics.  These  general 
notions  expressed  in  language  are  the  principles , 
rules,  definitions,  or  laws  of  the  sciences.  This 
process  of  classification,  of  reaching  a  group  idea 
from  the  examination  of  individuals,  is  invoked 


124         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

when  we  are  admonished  that  we  must  proceed 
from  the  particular  to  the  general ;  from  the  con- 
crete to  the  abstract. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  method  of  form- 
ing concepts,  the  following  is  taken  from  Bergen 
and  Davis '  "Principles  of  Botany",  page  152. 

"The  classifications  of  animals  and  plants  are 
attempts  to  express  the  actual  kinships,  or  what 
among  human  beings  are  called  blood  relation- 
ships, which  are  believed  to  exist  among  them.  To 
illustrate  the  principles  of  classification  let  us 
consider  the  position  of  the  pines  among  plants. 
All  of  the  pines  have  for  their  fruit  a  scaly  cone 
whose  seed  are  borne  naked  at  the  base  of  each 
scale  and  mature  the  second  year.  The  leaves  are 
needle-shaped,  evergreen,  and  clustered.  Any  tree 
which  has  all  the  characteristics  above  given  is  a 
pine. 

'  '  The  spruces,  hemlocks,  firs,  and  larches  agree 
with  the  pines  in  many  respects,  but  all  of  them 
mature  their  seed  the  first  year,  and  their  foliage 
is  different.  The  American  cypress  has  a  glob- 
ular woody  cone  and  deciduous  leaves  in  two 
rows.  The  arbor  vitse  and  the  juniper  have  awl- 
shaped  or  scale-like  leaves,  not  in  clusters. 

"All  of  these  cone-bearing  trees  are  distinct 
kinds,  but  they  are  grouped  together  because  the 
seeds  are  borne  naked  on  the  scales  of  the  cones. 
This  peculiarity  separates  the  group  from  a  much 
larger  assemblage  of  seed  plants  in  which  the 
seed  are  borne  enclosed  in  seed  cases,  pods,  or 
other  types  of  fruit.  Finally,  all  of  the  seed- 
bearing  plants  are  separated  from  the  spore- 


THE   CONCEPT  IN  EDUCATION  125 

bearing  groups  by  the  possession  of  methods  of 
reproduction  which  develop  seeds. 

"Thus  the  pines  find  their  place  in  the  classi- 
fication of  plants  through  clearly  marked  charac- 
ters which  define  several  different  groups.  These 
characters  are  (1)  the  presence  of  the  seed,  (2) 
the  fact  that  the  seed  are  exposed  or  naked,  (3) 
the  development  of  the  seed  in  a  cone  type  of 
fruit,  and  finally,  (4)  some  peculiarities  of  the 
cone,  and  the  character  of  the  foliage.  The  pro- 
cess of  classification  leads  from  an  assemblage  of 
more  than  one  hundred  thousand  kinds  of  plants 
(the  seed  plants),  through  successively  smaller 
divisions,  to  the  relatively  small  group  of  the 
pines,  with  hardly  more  than  seventy  known 
kinds." 

The  teaching  process  must  constantly  deal  with 
the  method  of  forming  concepts.  The  concept  is 
the  goal  of  instruction.  Detached,  unrelated  facts 
are  valuable  only  so  far  as  they  serve  as  nucleii 
out  of  which  general  truths  are  evolved.  The 
solution  of  a  particular  problem  in  arithmetic  is 
useful  only  so  far  as  it  causes  the  recall  of  general 
principles ;  or  leads  to  their  application  to  similar 
problems.  Our  text-books  are  now  presenting  no 
problems  that  serve  merely  as  mental  gymnastics. 


CHAPTEE  XI 


The  three 
stages  of 

thiniing". 


Conception. 


Judgment. 


THE  PEOCESS  OF  THINKING 

There  are  three  aspects,  or  stages  of  thinking: 
Conception,  Judgment,  and  Eeasoning.  These 
are  not  three  distinct  or  successive  mental  acts ; 
but  each  is  dependent  upon  the  other  two. 

No  line  of  division  can  mark  the  boundaries  be- 
tween any  two  of  the  various  mental  processes. 
The  mind  does  not  consist  of  distinct  faculties, 
nor  is  one  kind  of  mental  activity  wholly  differ- 
ent from  another  kind.  There  is  diversity  but 
unity  in  all. 

Conception. — As  conception,  the  first  step  or 
stage  in  the  process  of  thinking,  was  fully 
explained  in  Chapter  X.,  it  will  not  be  discussed 
further. 

Judgment. — Judgment  is  the  process  of  compar- 
ing two  concepts,  to  ascertain  if  they  agree  or  dis- 
agree. In  this  process  there  must  be  two,  and 
only  two,  concepts  taken  at  one  time. 

When  we  compare  the  concept  sheep  with  the 
broader  concept  animal  and  find  that  they  agree, 
we  say,  "a  sheep  is  an  animal."  This  is  a  posi- 
tive judgment.  If  we  compare  the  concept  sheep 
with  the  concept  goat  and  find  that  they  do  not 
agree,  we  say,  "the  sheep  is  not  a  goat".  This  is 
a  negative  judgment. 


THE  PROCESS   OF   THINKING  127 

Reasoning. — Seasoning  is  the  process  of  com- 
paring two  judgments,  and  from  them  deriving 
a  third.  Take  the  classic  illustration :  All  men 
are  mortal;  Socrates  was  a  man;  therefore,  Soc- 
rates was  mortal.  The  three  sentences,  or  judg- 
ments, as  used  in  the  above  illustration,  together 
form  a  syllogism,  the  usual  form  of  deductive 
reasoning,  which  will  be  treated  later.  To  enter 
into  the  various  classes  of  the  syllogism  would 
take  us  too  far  afield.  For  their  treatment,  the 
student  is  referred  to  any  good  text  on  logic. 

Thinking  may  be  regarded  as  a  general  func- 
tion of  the  intellect.  Whenever  one  is  forming 
percepts,  concepts,  or  judgments;  whenever  one 
is  studying  relations  or  discovering  differences; 
whenever  one  is  weighing,  comparing  or  classify- 
ing,  or  is  engaged  in  any  of  the  activities 
described  above,  he  is  thinking.  Often  in  thinking 
one  recalls  many  percepts  and  concepts  that  after 
a  little  reflection  are  found  irrelevant  to  the  mat- 
ter in  hand;  the  judgment  rejects  these  as  not 
agreeing  with  others  in  the  " chain  of  thought." 
Thinking,  then,  confines  itself  to  the  consider- 
ation of  things  that  are  relevant ;  that  is,  thinking 
necessitates  attention. 

Again,  thinking  is  an  effort  to  solve  a  specific 
problem,  or  to  reach  a  definite  conclusion,  by 
applying  experience  previously  acquired.  The 
solution  of  any  problem  is  dependent  upon  the 
relevancy  of  the  knowledge  and  experience 
brought  to  bear  upon  it. 

When  we  have  a  toothache  we  go  to  the  dentist, 
when  our  eyes  give  trouble  we  go  to  the  oculist, 


128 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


because  in  each  case  we  expect  to  find  previously 
acquired  experience  requisite  to  efficient  service. 
The  teacher  does  not  use  similar  judgment  when 
he  fails  to  direct  the  pupil's  preparation  of  mind 
for  the  comprehension  of  the  lesson  assigned,  or 
for  the  solution  of  a  problem  proposed.  The  pro- 
miscous  propounding  to  pupils  of  unrelated  ques- 
tions, when  no  pertinent  experience  has  been  pro- 
vided, cultivates  in  them  the  habit  of  random 
guessing,  the  effects  of  which  are  pernicious.  The 
ability  to  think  quickly  and  accurately  when  a 
problem  arises  unexpectedly,  is  gained  by  dili- 
gent and  careful  training  in  the  processes  of 
thinking,  and  the  acquisition  of  a  wealth  of  knowl- 
edge in  that  domain  of  thought  to  which  the  prob- 
lem belongs. 

The  lawyer  frequently  saves  his  cause  by  his 
ability  to  cite  decisions  of  the  higher  courts;  as 
often  he  loses  his  cause  because  of  inability  to  call 
quickly  into  consciousness,  precedents,  rulings, 
and  decisions  in  support  of  his  contention. 

The  problem  for  solution  may  be  that  of  the 
classification  of  a  plant,  the  identification  of  a  fos- 
sil, the  diagnosis  of  a  disease,  the  sailing  of  a 
boat,  the  driving  of  an  automobile,  the  planning 
of  a  political  campaign,  the  conduct  of  an  exposi- 
tion, or  the  regulation  of  the  tariff — each  a  speci- 
fic problem — one  simple,  another  complex,  the 
solution  of  each  demanding  ideas,  whose  posses- 
sion depends  upon  our  previous  associations  with 
matters  similar  to  the  problem  presented ;  and  the 
efficacy  of  our  thinking  will  depend  upon  the  store 
of  our  observations,  memories,  concepts,  and 


THE  PROCESS   OF   THINKING  129 

imagination,  and  our  ability  to  call  them  into 
mind  when  needed. 

Since  the  concept  is  so  vital  a  part  of  the  pro- 
cess of  thinking,  the  necessity  for  clear  concepts 
is  evident.  One's  conclusions  are  often  erron- 
eous, not  because  of  defective  reasoning  power, 
but  because  of  defective  concepts  upon  which  the 

T       i     i        mi  i    j      necessary 

reasoning  is  predicated.     The  concepts  are  data  to  right 

1-1          •'   t  -i   it        •     i  i          t   ±t  conclusion*. 

upon  which  are  based  the  judgment  and  the  rea- 
soning. If  the  data  are  false,  the  conclusions  will 
be  wrong,  even  though  the  reasoning  process  has 
been  faultless. 

It  is  important  that  two  persons  dealing  with 
each  other,  whether  in  buying  or  selling,  in  cor- 
respondence, or  in  ordinary  conversation,  under- 
stand alike  the  terms  employed.  Confusion, 
misunderstandings,  quarrels,  and  lawsuits  are 
avoided  by  previous  agreement  as  to  the  meaning 
of  all  the  terms  used  in  a  contract.  Probably  no 
word,  especially  if  it  is  the  name  of  an  abstract 
concept,  conveys  exactly  the  same  meaning  to  two 
individuals,  since  the  concept  of  each  depends  for 
its  significance  upon  his  previous  experience. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  the  concepts  of 
every  one  grow.  Eeading,  travel,  study,  experi- 
ence— all  bring  into  the  mind  new  features,  new 
characteristics  that  enrich  and  more  clearly  define 
every  concept  acquired. 

Word* 

It  is  imperative  that  the  teacher  ascertain  what 
is  in  the  mind  of  a  child  trying  to  express  himself 
in  words.  The  relations  and  the  name  of  the  con- 
cept  are  matters  of  serious  concern,  that  too  fre-  fault- 


130         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

quently  are  slighted.  " Words  without  ideas" 
has  been  long  decried  by  writers  on  the  teaching 
of  children.  Pupils  frequently  fail  on  recitation 
or  on  examination  because  of  their  ignorance  of 
the  import  of  the  questions  propounded.  Mis- 
takes concerning  the  nature  of  questions — of  the 
meaning  of  words  in  a  particular  relation — are 
not  confined  to  young  children.  For  instance,  a 
few  years  ago  the  writer  was  called  upon  to  exam- 
in  the  papers  of  a  great  many  applicants  for  state 
teacher's  certificates.  Among  the  questions  in 
physical  geography  was  this:  "Name  the  three 
states  of  water  ?"  More  than  ten  per  cent  of  the 
applicants  failed  to  answer  this  question  cor- 
rectly, solely  on  account  of  misapprehension  con- 
cerning the  import  of  the  word  "states"  in  the 
sentence.  Had  these  applicants  thought  once  that 
the  question  meant  only  to  ask  what  three  condi- 
tions or  forms  water  might  assume,  many  of  them 
would  have  easily  answered  the  question  cor- 
rectly. As  it  was,  their  answers  varied,  some  an- 
swering "Michigan,  Ohio  and  New  York,"  others 
"Michigan,  Illinois,  Ohio,"  etc. 

Every  school  should  have  an  unabridged  dic- 
tionary, and,  in  addition,  every  student  should 
have  a  small  edition  in  his  desk.  But  the  matter 
of  determining  whether  the  student  really  knows 
what  he  is  talking  about  can  not  be  settled  by  his 
ability  to  define  words  according  to  the  diction- 
ary. I  remember  that  when  a  child  I  met  the  word 
"roquelaur,"  and  in  endeavoring  to  learn  its 
meaning,  I  found  the  dictionary  defined  it  as  "a 
kind  of  surtout,"  but  as  the  copy  I  possessed 


THE  PROCESS   OF   THINKING  131 

omitted  to  define  "surtout,"  I  was  as  much  in  the 
dark  as  before. 

Men  change  their  opinions  not  because  their 
judgments  are  riper — or  their  reasoning  is  bet- 
ter, but  because  their  conceptions  have  grown; 
because  they  see  problems  in  relations  that  they 
did  not  at  first  discern.  Both  Webster  and  Cal- 
houn  reversed  their  views  concerning  the  "  tar- 
iff," Gladstone  changed  his  position  on  several 
important  questions. 

Faulty  concepts  lay  the  predicate  for  faulty 
judgments.  Unless  there  is  a  clear  conception  of 
each  of  the  two  terms  compared,  no  judgment  con- 
cerning them  is  reliable. 

Two  farmers  may  differ  widely  concerning  the 
value  of  a  tract  of  land,  because  one  estimates 
how  much  wheat,  and  the  other  how  much  cotton 
it  will  produce.  Each  thinks  of  what  it  is  worth 
to  him.  Two  different  men  express  different 
opinions  concerning  Mr.  Adams.  B  affirms  and 
C  denies  that  Adams  is  a  musician.  Each  knows 
Adams  well,  but  to  B  and  C  the  term  "musician" 
conveys  a  different  meaning,  for  B  has  heard  only 
the  crudest  music,  while  C  has  heard  the  masters. 
The  mind  always  determines  the  agreement  or 
disagreement  between  two  concepts  as  repre- 
sented by  terms ;  it  tests  the  truth  of  a  statement 
by  comparing  it  with  concepts  acquired  through 
former  experience.  If  the  statement  conforms  to 
standards  of  truth  already  established,  it  is 
judged  to  be  true ;  if  it  does  not  so  conform,  it  is 
pronounced  false. 

We  are  prone  to  pass  judgment  with  too  little 


132 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Bemedy  for 

faulty 

Judgment. 


How  the 
mind  retain! 
its  youth. 


knowledge  of  the  terms  that  we  compare,  and  it 
is  usually  those  with  the  least  knowledge  who  are 
the  most  confident  of  the  infallibility  of  their 
judgment. 

The  remedy  for  faulty  judgment  lies  in  a  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  terms  compared.  Cor- 
rect thinking  depends  fundamentally  upon  clear 
perception  and  conception.  All  progress  demands 
a  constant  growth  in  the  number  and  the  clear- 
ness of  our  concepts. 

Betts,  in  "The  Mind  and  its  Education,"  says: 
"When  our  concepts  stop  growing,  our  minds 
have  ceased  to  grow — we  no  longer  learn.  This 
arrest  of  development  is  often  seen  in  persons 
who  have  settled  into  a  life  of  narrow  routine, 
where  the  demands  are  few  and  of  a  simple 
nature.  Unless  they  rise  above  their  routine,  they 
early  become  'old  fogies.'  Their  concepts  petrify 
from  lack  of  use  and  the  constant  reconstruction 
which  growth  necessitates.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  person  who  has  upon  him  the  constant 
demand  to  meet  new  situations,  or  do  better  in  old 
ones,  will  keep  on  enriching  his  old  concepts  and 
forming  new  ones,  or  else,  unable  to  do  this,  he 
will  fail  in  his  position.  And  the  person  who 
keeps  on  steadily  enriching  his  concepts  has  dis- 
covered the  secret  of  perpetual  youth,  so  far  as 
his  mental  life  is  concerned.  For  him  there  is  no 
old  age;  his  thought  will  be  always  fresh;  his 
experience  always  accumulating,  and  his  knowl- 
edge growing  more  valuable  and  usable." 

Again,  judgment  may  be  defined  in  terms  of  the 
concept  by  describing  it  as  a  concept  with  the  at- 


THE  PROCESS   OF   THINKING  133 

tention  drawn  to  one  of  its  features ;  as,  snow  is 
white.  This  judgment  may  be  considered  as  the 
decision  of  agreement  of  the  concept  snow  and 
the  abstract  concept  whiteness,  but  so  intimate 
and  universal  is  this  characteristic  of  snow  that 
whiteness  becomes  an  essential  part  of  the  con- 
cept snow,  so  much  so,  that  w*e  do  not  think  of 
snow  without  thinking  of  white  at  the  same  time. 

Since  reasoning  is  founded  upon  judgment,  just 
as  judgment  is  founded  upon  conception,  it  fol- 
lows  that  mistakes  in  judgments  vitiate  the  rea- 
soning. 

Thinking  is  effort.  Day  dreaming,  reveries, 
castles  in  the  air  do  not  draw  upon  the  nervous 
energy,  but  close,  accurate  thinking  fatigues  the 
mind  as  muscular  exertion  wearies  the  body.  Long  255? SSt* 
concentrated  attention  to  details,  to  the  forming  S£luestlle 
of  judgments,  making  classifications,  searching 
for  similarities  and  differences  taxes  the  nervous 
system  greatly.  The  natural  inertia  of  the  mind, 
which  must  be  overcome  in  order  to  sustain  con- 
secutive thought,  is  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  so 
many  to  become  original,  independent  thinkers. 
Effective  thinking  is  done  by  comparatively  few, 
whose  opinions  and  findings  the  remainder  of  the 
world  is  content  to  accept.  Multitudes  cast  their 
ballots  either  as  their  fathers  did,  or  as  they  are 
led  by  effective,  original,  independent  thinkers. 
So  far  as  their  thoughts  are  concerned,  many  are 
but  echoes  of  the  past,  or  of  the  neighboring 
mountain.  The  willingness  of  many  to  accept 
without  thought,  question,  or  independent  investi- 
gation the  unsupported  statements  of  others,  is 


134 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  credulity 
of  the 
uninformed. 


The  skepti- 
cism of  the 
uninformed. 


Effects  of 
prejudice 
upon  the 
conclusion. 


demonstrated  every  day.  A  crowd  will  stand  for 
hours  around  a  patent  medicine  vendor,  as  he  har- 
angues his  listeners  concerning  the  numerous  ills 
that  flesh  is  heir  to,  and  expatiates  upon  the  won- 
derful curative  properties  of  a  newly  discovered 
panacea;  and  he  will  sell  his  wares  to  dozens  of 
hale,  hearty,  healthy,  robust  and  vigorous  men, 
who  in  all  their  lives  have  never  known  an  ache 
or  a  pain. 

The  well  known  character  of  "confidence"  man 
preys  upon  the  innocent  credulity  and  unsophis- 
ticated ignorance  of  those  who  have  never  ac- 
quired the  luxury  of  indulging  in  an  independent 
thought. 

The  proneness  to  accept  as  true  the  authori- 
tative and  the  traditional  causes  skepticism 
regarding  anything  that  is  new  or  violative  of 
belief  hoary  with  age.  Columbus  was  jeered  by 
the  rabble  as  he  passed  through  the  streets, 
because  he  was  bold  enough  to  deny  the  then  pre- 
valent belief  that  the  earth  is  flat.  Galileo  was 
humiliated,  dismissed  from  the  University  of  Pisa 
and  compelled  to  renounce  beliefs,  which  have 
since  become  the  accepted  knowledge  of  every 
school  boy. 

Both  our  judgment  and  our  reasoning  are  col- 
ored by  the  personal  element.  While  education, 
including  association,  comradeship,  travel  and  co- 
operative labor  tends  to  broaden  man's  altruism, 
it  has  not  yet  relieved  him,  and  probably  never 
will  relieve  him,  of  prejudice  and  bias. 

This  bias  affects  his  judgment  even  against  his 
will.  Man  can  not  be  sure  of  his  own  conclusions, 


THE  PKOCESS  OF  THINKING  135 

when  he  knows  that  his  interests,  his  ambitions, 
his  desires,  or  his  affections  will  be  affected  by 
his  decisions.  This  principle  is  so  well  established 
that  statutes  forbid  men  from  serving  as  jurors 
in  a  case  in  which  they  themselves  are  interested, 
or  in  which,  by  reason  of  family  or  business  ties, 
they  are  even  remotely  concerned. 

Thinking  finds  results,  or  seeing  results,  looks 
for  causes.  A  thinker  once  saw  an  apple  fall,  as 
thousands  had  seen  before.  Investigating  the 
cause  of  the  fall,  he  learned  one  of  the  secrets  of 
the  Creator  of  the  Universe,  how  the  earth, 
the  moon,  the  sun,  all  the  myriads  of  stars  and  The  achlev0. 
planets  in  the  galaxy  of  heaven,  are  kept  in  their 
places.  Yet  this  simple  circumstance,  the  train  of 
thought  to  which  it  led,  and  the  results  in  which 
it  terminated,  made  the  thinker  famous  for  all 
time.  A  noted  writer  has  said  that  "If  all  the 
scientists  of  all  the  ages  were  to  meet  in  con- 
vention, they  would  elect  Sir  Isaac  Newton  chair- 


man.' 


It  was  .another  thinker  who  first  questioned  the 
then  generally  accepted  belief  that  the  transmis- 
sion of  light  was  instantaneous — that  a  light  cre- 
ated anywhere  was  instantly  visible  everywhere. 
Even  astronomers  for  centuries  had  believed  this. 
But  that  light  had  a  velocity  that  could  be  com- 
puted was  conceived  by  the  thinker  Koemer,  who 
afterwards  proved  the  truth  of  his  contention.  It 
had  long  been  a  puzzle  to  astronomers  why  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons  always  occurred  later  .^e  achieve, 
when  Jupiter  was  in  opposition  than  when  in  con- 
junction  with  the  sun.  Eoemer  was  convinced 


136 


PKINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  achieve. 
inert  of 
Adams  and 
Le  Verrier. 


Inductive 
reasoning1. 


that  this  difference  of  sixteen  minutes  and  twen- 
ty-six seconds  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  light 
had  farther  to  travel  in  one  case  than  in  the  other, 
by  the  distance  across  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  or 
183,000,000  miles.  Basing  his  calculation  upon 
these  established  facts,  he  computed  the  velocity 
of  light  to  be  186,000  miles  per  second.  His  the- 
ory and  his  calculation  have  since  been  abundantly 
verified. 

Possibly  the  greatest  achievement  of  the  human 
mind  through  the  process  of  pure  thinking,  un- 
aided by  experiment  or  experience,  is  instanced 
in  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune,  which  was 
made  by  applying  the  law  that  every  body  in  the 
solar  system  affects  the  motion  of  every  other 
body.  Some  time  after  the  discoyery  of  Uranus, 
astronomers,  after  taking  all  known  causes  into 
account,  found  there  was  still  something,  some- 
where, affecting  the  newly  discovered  planet 's  mo- 
tion, and  this  fact  suggested  the  existence  of 
another  hitherto  unknown  planet.  The  question 
was,  " Where  is  this  planet,  if  it  exists?"  Two 
different  thinkers,  Adams  and  Le  Verrier,  applied 
themselves  independently  to  its  solution,  and  both 
arrived  at  the  same  result,  mathematically  locat- 
ing the  new  planet  through  the  sheer  power  of  the 
intellect,  and  the  telescope  of  Dr.  Galle  verified 
their  calculations. 

Induction. — Let  us  suppose  a  savage  to  have 
reached  maturity  without  any  experience  with 
fire,  and  that  on  a  visit  to  a  neighboring  tribe  he 
finds  a  fire  burning.  He  places  on  the  fire  a  stick 
of  pine  and  it  burns.  When  about  to  infer  that  all 


THE  PROCESS  OF  THINKING  137 

substances  will  burn,  lie  observes  in  the  fire  some 
stones  which  have  not  been  consumed.  He  then 
tries  a  piece  of  oak  and  finds  that  it  burns,  and 
similarly  for  cedar,  cypress,  and  other  varieties 
of  wood.  Finding  they  all  burn,  he  reaches  the 
conclusion  that  all  wood  will  burn. 

He  has  reached  this  conclusion  with  respect  to 
wood  in  general,  from  his  experience  with  several 
varieties  of  wood.  This  process  of  reasoning 
(which  consists  in  proceeding  from  the  particular 
to  the  general)  is  called  induction.  It  is  by  no 
means  necessary  that  every  particular  be  tested 
before  a  general  conclusion  is  reached.  If  we  ex- 
amine a  sufficient  number  of  individuals  of  a  class 
and  find  that  each  possesses  a  certain  characteris- 
tic, we  are  warranted  in  the  conclusion  that  all 
others  of  the  class  have  that  characteristic. 

Deduction. — If  the  savage,  after  having  arrived 
at  the  general  law  that  all  wood  will  burn,  should 
afterwards  bo  in  a  section  of  the  country  where 
there  was  no  pine,  or  any  one  of  the  varieties  of 
wood  used  in  his  orginal  experiment,  but  in  which  from  the  * 
fir  was  plentiful,  he  would  proceed  confidently  to 
gather  some  of  the  fir  wood  with  with  to  build  a  nlwr' 
fire.  His  reasoning  would  then  be  in  this  form : 
"All  wood  will  burn  (already  proved).  Fir  is  a 
wood,  therefore,  fir  will  burn."  He  has  then  re- 
versed the  first  method  of  reasoning,  and  has 
proceeded  from  the  general  to  the  particular. 
This  process  of  reasoning,  proceeding  from  the 
general  to  the  particular — is  called  deduction. 

Should  the  savage  then  decide  to  investigate  the 
combustibility  of  rock  by  trying  all  the  varieties 


138 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


easily  obtained  he  would  reach  the  conclusion  that 
no  rock  ivill  burn.  Similarly  he  would  be  led  to  the 
broader  generalization  that  all  organic  matter  is 
combustible  and  all  inorganic  matter  is  incom- 
bustible. 

These  conclusions  would  soon  be  the  common 
property  of  all.  Nobody  would  try  to  burn  rock 
of  any  kind.  Should  the  tribe  in  its  wanderings 
come  upon  a  coal  field,  where  coal  lay  on  the  sur- 
face in  abundance,  none  would  think  of  trying  to 
make  a  fire  of  it,  because  of  their  belief  that  coal 
is  rock  and  of  their  previous  experience  that  all 
rock  is  incombustible.  If  in  building  a  fire  a  piece 
of  coal  by  chance  should  get  to  the  fire  and  burn, 
a  new  problem  would  arise.  Either  the  general 
conclusion  about  rock  must  be  modified  or  the  coal 
be  examined  for  classification,  the  solution  of  the 
problem  resulting  finally  in  the  discovery  that 
coal  is  organic,  hence  its  combustibility. 

Although  induction  and  deduction  are  different 
phases  of  thinking,  they  are  closely  related.  They 
are  not  always  distinctly  separate  processes.  Rea- 
soning is  connecting  a  particular  and  a  general 
element.  Its  operation  may  take  either  direction. 
It  may  consist  in  arranging  a  number  of  similar 
objects  into  a  class,  or  in  identifying  an  object  by 
discovering  its  agreement  with  an  already  estab- 
lished class.  Induction  discovers  particular  facts, 
by  means  of  which  universal  laws  are  discovered ; 
as  the  universal  law  of  gravitation  was  induced 
from  the  particular  facts  of  falling  apples.  After 
the  establishment  and  verification  of  the  law  of 
gravitation,  the  discovery  of  Neptune  was  accom- 


THE  PROCESS  OF  THINKING  139 

plished,  as  has  been  stated  from  data  discovered 
from  the  irregularity  of  the  motions  of  Uranus. 

But  there  is  danger  in  basing  conclusions  upon 
too  limited  experience.    The  child  is  usually  ready 
to  decide  a  question  upon  one  experience.    The  jumping- at 
longer  the  experience  the  more  cautious  one  is  in  conclU8ions- 
forming  conclusions  and  in  making  general  state- 
ments.    Scientists  are  not  prone  (as  a  general 
rule)  to  form  hasty  conclusions,  for  they  have 
learned  that  similarities  are  often  accidental,  and 
that  it  is  essential  to  look  for  differences.    Com- 
parison without  contrast  is  not  enough. 

Halleck  says:    "In  some  cases  the  examination 
of  a  very  few  instances  will  give  a  reasonably  cer- 
tain conclusion.    Within  certain  limits  we  may, 
roughly  speaking,  lay  down  the  following  guiding 
principle:    Where  there  are  logical  reasons  for  Ouldlllg, 
the  exact  similarity  of  a  new  instance  to  others  ^BoSng^ 
already  examined,  we  may  infer  the  similarity  ^auction, 
quite  boldly,  although  we  are  familiar  with  but 
few  individuals  of  that  class.    From  the   exami- 
nation of  a  few  cases  we  might  infer  that  all  men 
have  lungs.    There  is  a  logical  necessity  why  this 
should  prove  true." 

If  we  should  see  Mr.  Jones  measuring  the 
premises  of  Mr.  Smith,  we  would  not  be  warranted 
in  the  inference  that  Mr.  Jones  had  bought  Mr.  £laerence 
Smith's  property.  Seeing  Mr.  Jones  measuring 
the  land  merely  suggests  a  purchase.  If  we  knew 
previously  that  Mr.  Smith's  property  was  for  sale, 
and  also  that  Mr.  Jones  was  considering  its  pur- 
chase, the  presumption  of  the  purchase  would  be 


140 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Perfect  and 
imperfect 

inductions. 


Natural 

sciences 
"built  upon 
induction. 


strengthened,  but  the  conclusion  that  the  sale  had 
been  made  would  still  not  be  justified. 

Perfect  and  Imperfect  Induction. — Induction  is 
of  two  kinds :  perfect  induction  when  all  possible 
cases  have  been  examined,  and  imperfect  induc- 
tion when  fewer  than  all  possible  have  been  ex- 
amined in  deriving  a  conclusion.    As  a  matter  of 
fact,  there  are  very  few  instances  in  which  all  the 
cases  can  be  examined,  nor  is  an  examination  of 
all  the  cases  necessary  to  establish  a  general  law. 
Whenever  there  is  "the  logical  reason "  of  the 
continued  similarity,  as  explained  above,  the  num- 
ber of  cases  examined  may  be  quite  limited.    On 
the  other  hand,  a  great  number  of  cases  might 
be  examined  without  reaching  a  correct  conclu- 
sion.   For  example,  one  may  reason :  horses  have 
lungs,  cows  have  lungs,  and  so  on  through  the 
families  of  goat,  sheep,  deer,  bird,  etc.,  and  argue 
that  all  animals   (including  fishes)  have  lungs, 
having  apparently  cited  many  cases,  when,  in  fact, 
he  has  cited  only  one  case,  that  of  land  animals. 

The  natural  sciences  are  all  built  upon  induc- 
tions. In  none  of  them  has  the  induction  been  per- 
fect in  the  sense  that  all  possible  cases  have  been 
used  in  any  investigation,  yet  we  rely  as  confi- 
dently upon  the  conclusions  of  science  as  we  would 
had  every  case  been  passed  in  review. 

As  an  illustration  of  perfect  induction,  take 
from  any  text  book  on  plane  geometry  this  con- 
clusion (theorem) : 

"In  the  same  circle,  equal  angles  have  the  same 
ratio  as  their  intercepted  arcs."  Note  the  usual 
proof. 


THE  PROCESS  OF   THINKING 


141 


Case  I.    When  the  arcs  are  commensurable. 

Case  II.    When  the  arcs  are  incommensurable. 

The  conclusion  being  logically  established  for 
each  case  separately,  the  general  conclusion  fol- 
lows, for  commensurable  arcs  and  incommensur- 
able arcs  include  all  arcs. 

As  a  second  illustration  take  this  conclusion : 

"An  inscribed  angle  is  measured  by  half  its  in- 
tercepted arc."  Note  the  usual  proof.  There  are 
three  cases : 


Illustration 
of  perfect 
induction. 


1.  When  one  side  of  the  angle  is  a  diameter  of 
the  circle. 

2.  When  the  center  of  the  circle  is  within  the 
angle. 

3.  When  the  center  of  the  circle  is  without  the 
angle. 

The  conclusion  sought  is  then  derived  for  each 
case  separately.  Therefore,  it  is  true  as  a  general 
proposition,  for  all  the  possible  cases  have  been 
exhausted. 

Mathematical  Induction.— A  type  of  reasoning 
known  as  Mathematical  Induction,  or  Demonstra- 
tive Reasoning,  exhibits  the  process  in  a  unique 
and  effective  way;  it  is  also  called  the  algebraic 
method  of  reasoning.  In  mathematics  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  denote  general  number. 


Another  il~ 
lustration  of 
perfect 
induction. 


Mathematical 
induction. 

Demonstra- 
tive Reason, 
ingf. 

Algebraic 
method  of 
reasoning-. 


'142  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

that  is,  a  may  be  regarded  as  denoting  any  num- 
ber whatever.  The  same  is  true  for  b  or  any  other 
letter  or  symbol. 

As  an  example,  then,  by  actual  multiplication  of 
a  +  b  by  itself,  we  have  a2  +  2  a  b  +  62,  that  is, 
the  square  of  the  sum  of  a  and  b  is  the  square  of  a 
plus  twice  the  product  of  a  and  6  plus  the  square 
of  6. 

But  a  and  6  represent  any  numbers  whatever, 
therefore,  the  square  of  the  sum  of  any  two  num- 
bers is  the  square  of  the  first  plus  twice  the  prod- 
uct of  the  first  by  the  second  plus  the  square  of 
the  second.  Similarly 

(a  +  b)  •  =  a8  +  3  a2  b  +  3  a&3  +  6* 
may  be  translated  for  any  two  numbers  whatever. 

This  type  of  reasoning,  its  soundness  and  sim- 
plicity, freedom  from  entanglement  with  irrele- 
vant matter  in  the  course  of  a  lengthy  investiga- 
tion, combined  with  its  terseness  of  expression  as 
exhibited  in  its  numerous  formulas,  makes  mathe- 
matics the  powerful  instrument  for  investigation 
that  renders  it  indispensable  to  the  study  of  every 
other  science. 

Geometric  Reasoning. — The  best  illustration  of 
pure  deduction  is  exhibited  also  in  the  demonstra- 
tion of  a  geometrical  theorem.  This  type  is  called 
geometric  reasoning. 

As  an  illustration,  study  the  form — wording 
and  all — of  a  typical  demonstration.  For  ex- 
ample, the  well  known  statement,  "The  sum  of  the 
angles  of  a  triangle  is  a  straight  angle." 


THE  PEOCESS  OF  THINKING  143 

The  process  of  rea-  c 

soning    begins    with,  /S. 

"Let  A  B  C  be  any  I      \.  illustration 

.          -I      • «  «.*"  /  >.  °*  geometric 

triangle,       referring  /  ^v 

always  to  the  figure  /• >^ 

of  a  triangle  pre- 
sented with  the  rest  of  the  argument.  Now, 
let  us  understand  what  any  triangle  means. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  triangles.  With  respect 
to  the  equality  or  inequality  of  their  sides,  tri- 
angles are  classified  as  scalene  and  isosceles  (the 
equilateral  is  a  special  kind  of  isosceles  triangle) 
and  with  respect  to  the  size  of  its  angles  they  are 
classified  as  acute,  right,  and  obtuse.  Now,  how 
can  the  triangle  ABC  represent  any  triangle, 
when  there  are  so  many  particular  cases  of  the 
triangle?  How  does  it  become  a  typical  triangle, 
a  general  triangle,  including  all  the  classes  of  tri- 
angles f  How  will  the  proof  about  the  angles  of 
this  triangle  establish  a  property  of  all  kinds  of 
triangles? 

By  studying  the  process  of  reasoning  in  deriv- 
ing the  conclusion  it  is  seen  that  only  those  prop- 
erties are  brought  into  the  discussion  that  belong 
to  all  kinds  of  triangles.  No  mention  is  made  of 
the  length  of  sides  or  size  of  angles.  '  '  Sides"  and 
"angles"  are  mentioned,  but  all  kinds  of  triangles 
have  sides  and  angles.  Each  kind  has  just  three 
sides  and  just  three  angles,  and  the  conclusion  in- 
eludes  all  plane  figures  that  have  just  three  sides 
and  just  three  angles,  irrespective  of  their  relative 
length  or  size,  and  irrespective  of  the  size  or  the 
shape  of  the  triangle ;  therefore,  the  figure  given, 


144         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

by  ignoring  every  property  not  common  to  every 
kind  or  class  of  triangle,  becomes  a  universal  tri- 
angle, and  what  is  proved  concerning  it  is  proved 
for  every  triangle  regardless  of  its  kind. 


CHAPTEE  XH 

TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  THINK 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  of  the  school  is  to 
train  the  pupils  to  think.  Every  successful  busi- 
ness or  professional  man  is  a  good  inductive  rea- 
soner.  The  successful  salesman  has  learned  from 
experience  how  to  approach  a  customer,  how  to 
read  human  nature  in  its  special  guises  and  under 
variable  conditions.  The  successful  merchant  has 
learned  to  foresee  the  wants  of  his  customers.  In 
his  mind  he  has  tabulated  his  experiences,  and  has 
derived  a  conclusion  concerning  the  trend  of  fash- 
ion for  the  coming  season.  The  successful  physi- 
cian  has  learned  to  diagnose  symptoms,  to  detect 
pathological  conditions.  The  successful  lawyer  rea*oner9- 
has  learned  through  induction  to  detect  the  "will- 
ing" witness,  to  discover  motive,  and  to  read  the 
human  physiognomy.  He  has  learned  inductively 
what  type  of  man  is  safest  for  the  defendant  on 
the  jury  trying  his  client  on  the  charge  of  mur- 
der, theft,  or  arson.  He  has  learned  that  in  select- 
ing a  jury,  the  past  experience  of  the  talisman 
exerts  a  determining  influence  upon  his  opinion  in 
spite  of  law,  testimony,  or  instruction  of  the  court. 
He  has  learned,  or  he  does  learn  by  examination 
of  the  juror,  whether  he  is  controlled  by  judgment 
or  by  sentiment,  by  testimony  or  by  prejudice. 

So  much  in  the  actualities  of  life  rests  upon  the 


146 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Important  to 
train  pupils 
to  think. 


To  do  thing* 
well  require* 
habit  of 

doing1  one's 
test. 


Minute  at  ten. 
tion  to  details 
a  method  of 
training  to 
think. 


power  to  think — to  think  accurately,  quickly,  in- 
cisively— that  the  training  of  pupils  to  think  is  an 
important  function  of  the  school. 

How  may  pupils  be  taught  to  think?  This  ques- 
tion can  not  be  answered  by  formula,  recipe,  or  de- 
vice. Besides,  if  such  answer  were  possible,  it 
would  be  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  work.  Such 
answer  would  stultify  the  writer  and  vitiate  his 
purpose,  that  of  leading  the  readers,  themselves, 
to  think.  Devices,  like  prescriptions,  are  applica- 
ble only  to  special  conditions;  principles,  though 
their  application  must  ever  depend  upon  individ- 
ual intelligence,  originality,  and  initiative,  are 
general  in  their  application. 

If  there  is  any  merit  in  the  doctrine  of  "  Learn 
to  do  by  doing, "  the  question  might  be  answered 
by  saying  "learn  to  think  by  thinking. "  But  one 
does  not  always  " learn  to  do  by  doing."  His 
learning  to  do  depends  upon  how  he  did  while,  he 
was  doing.  Sometimes  one  renders  it  very  diffi- 
cult to  learn  to  do  a  thing  by  having  been  so  long 
in  doing  the  thing  the  wrong  way. 

Since  thinking  is  the  operation  of  the  faculties 
of  the  mind,  the  proper  exercise  of  the  faculties 
is  to  cultivate  the  power  of  thinking.  The  first 
care  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  train  the  pupil  to 
perceive — to  observe  carefully. 

Effective  observation,  that  is  the  kind  of  obser- 
vation that  gives  training  and  education,  is  not 
general  or  casual,  but  consists  in  careful,  minute, 
attention  to  details,  to  small  distinctions  and  dif- 
ferences. Instead  of  observing  flowers,  it  ob- 
serves one  flower — its  petals,  its  pistils,  its  stam- 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  THINK  147 

ens,  its  roots,  and  finally,  the  whole  flower.  It 
involves  long  sustained  attention.  The  scientist 
is  a  careful,  painstaking  observer  of  seemingly 
trifling  details.  The  medical  student,  preparing  to 
treat  the  diseases  of  the  human  body,  first  learns 
the  body  by  dissecting  it.  He  traces  every  nerve, 
vein,  artery,  ligament,  critically  and  studies  the 
functions  of  every  bone,  organ,  and  muscle. 

Instead  of  demanding  that  the  pupil  observe 
many  things,  the  teacher  should  require  him  to  ob- 
serve a  few  things  well.  Instead  of  asking  him  to 
tell  all  about  everything  he  saw  on  the  road  to 
and  from  school,  during  a  certain  week,  the 
teacher  should  ask  him  to  describe  minutely  one 
object  that  he  saw  on  the  road  to  school  to-day. 

The  attempt  to  take  into  the  mind  too  many 
things  at  once  tends  to  dissipate  its  energies  and 
to  impair  its  perception. 

Children  can  be  trained  to  think  by  bringing 
them  into  contact  with  something  new.    Excur-  New  objects 
sions  to  field  and  forest,  in  charge  of  one  who 
guides  their  attention  and  asks  only  pertinent 
questions,  is  a  good  method  of  cultivating  thought. 

If  the  object  of  such  excursion  is  simply  recrea- 
tion and  relaxation,  the  observation  should  be 
turned  loose  to  run  at  will.  An  excursion  of  this 
kind  is  greatly  educational  in  its  way,  but  if  the 
purpose  is  the  cultivation  of  thinking,  it  should  be 
more  definitely  planned.  The  class  taken  should 
not  be  large ;  the  objects  observed  should  be  few, 
and  the  attention  should  be  focused  upon  these 
few  until  something  definite  and  certain  about 
them  has  been  learned.  This  kind  of  observation 


148 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Good  observa- 
tion requires 
power  of  at- 
tention. 


One  thin?  to 
be  under- 
taken at  a 
time. 


Students 
often  engage 
in  too  many 
activities. 


requires  highly  developed  power  of  attention,  the 
power  to  take  the  mind  away  from  distracting 
noises  and  concentrate  it  upon  one  object  to  the 
exclusion  for  the  time  of  all  else.  This  kind  of  at- 
tention is  secured  only  through  interest — without 
interest,  attention  soon  flags,  and  without  atten- 
tion clear  perception  and  thinking  are  impossible. 
A  great  problem  for  the  teacher,  then,  is  to  invest 
all  the  processes  of  study  with  interest. 

Too  many  things  should  not  be  undertaken  at  a 
time.  Common  sense  in  business  affairs  teaches 
this.  A  man  could  not  reasonably  expect  to  con- 
duct successfully  at  the  same  time  a  mercantile 
business,  a  railroad,  and  a  bank.  No  one  now 
undertakes  to  prepare  for  the  practice  of  dentis- 
try, medicine,  and  law. 

The  cases  in  history,  in  which  one  man  has  be- 
come eminent  in  more  than  one  line,  as  Michael 
Angelo  did,  are  so  rare  that  they  merely  prove  the 
rule  by  being  the  exceptions. 

The  high  school  or  the  college  student  should 
not  neglect  the  social  side  of  life  while  in  school. 
He  should  remember  that  in  after  years  he  must 
live  and  deal  with  men.  But  too  frequently  he 
engages  in  too  many  activities  for  his  own  good. 
With  all  the  phases  of  athletics,  baseball,  football, 
and  tennis,  with  his  literary  societies,  debates  and 
musical  organizations,  not  to  mention  the  numer- 
ous social  functions,  he  has  little  time  left  for 
consecutive,  independent  thinking. 

The  best  thinking  is  done  in  solitude.  All  the 
discoveries  and  inventions  to  which  our  civiliza- 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  THINK  149 

tion  is  so  much  indebted,  have  been  solved  from  Best  thinking- 
brains  that  had  shut  out  everything  except  those  »outuae. 
which  pertained  strictly  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem  in  mind. 

By  securing  quietude  and  freedom  from  distrac- 
tion, the  teacher  should  begin  early  to  cultivate 
in  the  child  the  habit  of  quiet  thought.  It  is  true 
that  the  ability  to  think  on  one's  feet  is  a  desir- 
able accomplishment,  and  the  pupil  has  the  oppor- 
tunity of  acquiring  it  in  the  well  conducted  recita- 
tion ;  but  the  ability  to  think  in  solitude,  to  com- 
mune with  one's  self,  with  God,  and  with  nat- 
ure, without  the  inspiration  of  the  crowd,  is  by  far 
the  more  valuable  attainment.  One  who  has  long  Much  extern. 
been  accustomed  to  "  talking  "  in  the  class-room, 
speaking  to  meetings  of  teachers,  or  other  public 


gatherings,  and  has  fallen  into  the  habit  of  mak- 
ing extemporaneous  addresses,  learns,  to  his  re- 
gret, that  thereby  he  has  decreased  his  ability  to 
sit  in  the  quietude  of  his  room  and  think. 

While  the  purely  concrete  should  be  presented 
to  young  children  in  teaching  them  to  think,  the 
presentation  to  them  of  abstract  relations  should 
not  be  long  delayed.  They  must  eventually  learn 
to  deal  with  abstract  concepts,  and  the  teacher  errs 
who  decides  that  young  children  can  comprehend 
only  the  physically  tangible. 

Lessons  assigned  should  not  be  too  long  or  too 
difficult.  The  teacher  must  learn  how  long  the 
child  at  his  stage  of  life  can  sustain  concentrated 
attention.  If  the  lesson  is  too  difficult,  if  it  pre-  proper  length. 
sents  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  pupil's 
mind,  he  quits  discouraged,  and  without  desire  to 


150         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

undertake  another.  Eepetition  of  this  error 
causes  a  mental  surrender,  takes  away  the  spirit, 
just  as  courage  forsakes  the  army  that  is  always 
vanquished.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work  should 
not  be  too  easy.  It  should  call  forth  effort,  for 
without  real  effort  there  is  no  thinking.  A  regi- 
ment of  soldiers  feels  no  elation  in  capturing  or 
routing  a  solitary  sentinel.  So  the  pupil  derives 
no  pleasure  from  solving  a  "too  easy"  problem. 

The  teacher  may  do  too  much  or  too  little  to 
enourage  thinking.  How  much  ought  the  teacher 
to  do?  That  question  demands  the  answer  of  the 
teacher.  His  ability  or  inability  to  determine  that, 
stamps  him  as  an  efficient  or  inefficient  teacher. 

As  a  general  proposition,  he  should  do  enough 
to  help  the  student  over  difficulties  insurmountable 
by  the  student,  and  to  direct  him  over  those  the 
surmounting  of  which  unaided  would  require  time 
that  might  be  more  wisely  and  profitably  spent. 

The  teacher  should  never  do  so  much  that  the 
student  is  made  to  feel  that  he,  himself,  has  done 
little.  The  child's  mind  delights  in  discovery  and 
achievement.  Listen  to  the  tone  of  his  voice  as 
he  says,  "See  what  I  did  by  myself!"  The  ring 
of  triumph  is  in  it. 

The  teacher  may  incite  or  may  kill  thinking  by 
the  manner  of  assigning  the  lesson.  In  the  assign- 
ment enough  ought  to  be  said  to  arouse  the  inter- 
est of  the  student.  Some  life  topic  ought  to  be 
the  central  point  of  every  assignment.  The 
teacher  ought  not  to  tell  all  that  there  is  in  the 
lesson,  and  how  to  find  it,  for  the  child  delights 
in  finding  things  for  himself.  Until  he  has  been 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO   THINK  151 

subdued  by  the  methods  of  the  school  that  reduce 
him  to  acquiescence  in  authority,  every  child  is  a 
young  Columbus,  a  Herschel,  or  a  Newton. 

The  teacher  must  give  the  pupil  time  to  think. 
Short  preparation  periods,  hurried  recitation  tlm«  *°  **>***• 
periods,  make  thinking  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 
A  certain  part  of  every  recitation  period,  it  is  true, 
should  be  devoted  to  finding  out  if  the  pupil  has 
prepared  the  lesson,  but  another  part  should  be 
devoted  to  the  pupil's  expression  of  independent 
thought  on  the  lesson. 

By  judicious  questioning  the  teacher  may  call 
forth  the  powers  of  correlation,  abstraction,  etc. 
In  general,  leading  questions  —  those  that  can  be 
answered  affirmatively  or  negatively  —  call  for 
neither  originality  nor  thinking  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil. 

Language  is  a  considerable  element  of  thinking. 
A  reaction  has  set  in  against  the  old  method  of 
teaching,  in  which  memory  training  and  acquies^ 
cence  in  authority  were  the  chief  elements,  and  in 
which  pupils  were  taught  words  without  reference 
to  their  meaning.  The  cry  has  gone  out  against 
"  words  before  ideas''  and  for  "  ideas  before 
words."  In  trying  to  avoid  the  error  of  the  old 
way,  there  is  danger  of  going  to  the  other  extreme. 
Dickens  says,  "Our  vices  are  but  virtues  carried 
to  excess." 

The  name  of  an  object,  so  far  as  it  is  an  object  The  name  of 
of  thought,  is  an  essential  characteristic.    Names 


are  not  meaningless,  unless  disassociated  from  ob-  e 
jects.    Dewey  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
mind  deals  with  meanings  as  well  as  with  objects. 


152 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Pupil's 
•fffame. 


Words  with 
Ideas. 


language  a 
means  of 

thinking". 


"Every  one,"  he  says,  "has  experienced  how 
learning  an  appropriate  name  for  what  was  dim 
and  vague  cleared  up  and  crystallized  the  whole 
matter."  When  a  child  sees  anything  that  is  new 
he  asks  at  once,  "What  is  it?"  The  mere  naming 
of  the  object  adds  to  it  in  his  mind  a  new  charac- 
teristic. A  little  reflection  will  convince  a  man 
that  he  can  not  only  talk  more  intelligently  but 
that  he  can  think  more  intelligently  about  an  ob- 
ject or  a  person  whose  name  he  knows. 

The  teacher  learns  the  characteristics  of  the  pu- 
pil more  quickly  if  he  learns  his  name.  Experi- 
ence in  handling  large  numbers  of  students  has 
proved  how  much  easier  it  is  to  study  the  qualities 
of  an  individual  if  one  knows  his  name.  Common 
practice  regards  this  principle.  One  introduces 
Mr.  Jones  to  Mr.  Johnson  ;  he  does  not  present  a 
gentleman  to  another  gentleman.  The  name  and 
the  face  are  presented  together.  The  presentation 
of  two  persons  to  each  other  over  the  telephone 
would  not  be  less  ridiculous.  Instead  of  "words 
before  ideas"  or  "ideas  before  words"  let  it  be 
"words  with  ideas,"  or  "ideas  with  words."  No 
one  ever  catches  many  "fish."  The  novice  tries, 
but  the  experienced  fisherman  fishes  for  perch, 
y  or  bass. 


Language  may  be  used  in  training  to  think. 
Fine  discrimination  between  synonyms,  close  at- 
tention to  forms  of  expression,  is  a  valuable  men- 
tal exercise.  Loose  and  careless  expressions  beget 
careless  and  inaccurate  thinking.  The  teacher 
should  insist  upon  the  pupil's  use,  both  in  speak- 
ing and  writing,  of  words  that  convey  exact  mean- 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  THINK  153 

ing.  All  colleges  agree  that  the  greatest  weakness 
in  their  matriculates  is  in  the  proper  use  of  words. 
And  the  tragedy  of  the  whole  thing  is  their  failure 
to  realize  that  the  method  of  expressing  thought 
has  any  vital  connection  with  the  thought  itself. 

Not  so  often  as  to  make  it  burdensome,  the  stu- 
dent  should  be  required  to  present  themes,  essays, 
or  compositions,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  provoking 
thought.  These  should  be  judged  by  the  teacher 
solely  on  the  basis  of  originality  of  ideas  and  accu- 
racy of  expression.  One  who  expresses  a  thought 
in  a  weak,  disconnected  manner  needs  training  in 
thinking  about  meanings. 

Original  and  independent  thinkers  are  rare. 
They  have  always  been  rare.  The  greatest  prob- 
lem of  the  school  is  to  increase  their  number. 
Morgan  says,  "The  universe  of  matter  is  an  expo- 
sition of  God's  thought.  Man's  highest  preroga- 
tive is  to  think  over  again  God's  thoughts;  their 
re-statement  is  man's  science  and  philosophy." 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  LESSON 


The  divisions 
of  the  lesson. 


The  lesson 
affords  oppor- 
tunity for 
close  personal 
acquaint, 
ance. 


I.      THE  LESSON  ASSIGNMENT 

The  lesson  in  its  broadest  sense,  includes  the 
Assignment,  the  Preparation,  and  the  Recitation. 
It  presents  the  most  interesting  and  important  of 
all  problems  in  education,  and  provides  the  great- 
est opportunity  for  that  close  personal  contact  of 
the  teacher  and  the  pupil  that  enables  mind  to  in- 
fluence mind.  Every  activity  in  every  phase  of 
education  is  important.  Much  may  be  done  to  en- 
rich old  conceptions  and  stimulate  new  ambitions 
through  association  in  various  ways — through 
the  student  activities,  through  social  intercourse 
on  the  play-ground,  and  through  the  period  of 
opening  exercises  of  the  day.  Each  of  these  agen- 
cies needs  to  be  strengthened,  encouraged,  and 
intelligently  directed.  The  wholesome  effect  of 
athletics  is  no  longer  questioned,  nor  is  the  in- 
spiration and  the  uplifting  influence  of  the  chapel 
period  in  the  least  doubted.  But  it  is  through  The 
Lesson  that  the  best  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
the  close  personal  touch  of  mind  with  mind  by 
which  hidden  ambitions  are  disclosed,  life  plans 
unfolded,  latent  talents  discovered,  and  visions  of 
the  higher  life  revealed. 

It  is  said  that  "The  greatest  thing  in  the  world 


THE  LESSON  155 

is  a  human  life;  the  greatest  work  in  the  world, 
a  helpful  touch  upon  that  life."  Such  is  the  op- 
portunity  given  both  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  stu- 
dent  in  the  lesson.  It  is  there  more  than  any- 
where else  in  the  process  of  teaching  that  the 
foundation  for  character  is  laid.  And  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  building  of  character  is  the 
main  purpose  of  the  school.  The  opportunities 
afforded  by  the  lesson  carry  with  them  commen- 
surate responsibilities ;  therefore,  a  close  study  of 
each  phase  of  the  lesson  problem  is  imperative,  in 
order  that  the  teacher  may  meet  these  responsi- 
bilities. 

The  Lesson,  as  has  been  stated,  consists  of  three  -me  three 
distinct  phases:     (1)    The  Lesson  Assignment;  recitation. 
(2)    The   Lesson    Preparation,   or   The   Lesson 
Study;  and  (3)  The  Kecitation.    These  three  di- 
visions will  be  considered  separately. 

The  Lesson  Assignment.— In  order  that  the 
class  as  a  whole  and  each  individual  member 
thereof  may  be  prepared  to  attack  intelligently 
the  lesson  problem  presented,  certain  definite 
principles  should  be  observed  in  each  assignment. 

In  the  beginning,  the  teacher  should  understand 
fully  the  use  of  the  term  Lesson  Assignment,  and 
should  know  how  to  formulate  a  plan  of  procedure 
in  accordance  with  the  broadest  interpretation  of 
its  meaning.  To  assign  a  lesson  is  to  designate 
some  definite  lesson  problem,  whether  this  be  a  The  learning- 
problem  in  science,  in  literature,  or  in  history, 
upon  which  the  student  is  required  to  employ  all 
of  the  learning  processes,  that  is,  acquisition,  as- 
similation, and  expression. 


156 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  teacher 
should  have 
comprehen- 
sive knowl- 
edge. 


Incorrect 
ideas  of  les. 
son  assign. 

meut. 


A  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  a 
whole,  of  the  text  book  used,  and  of  all  available 
collateral  material,  will  aid  the  teacher  in  stimu- 
lating the  interest  of  the  pupil,  and  in  creating  an 
atmosphere  of  pleasure  and  enthusiasm  in  the 
entire  class.  Familiarity  with  the  subject  and  its 
difficulties,  and  a  keen  insight  into  the  capacity  of 
the  class  and  its  needs  sufficient  to  assign  a  lesson 
intelligently,  command  the  respect  of  the  pupils 
and  inspire  their  confidence  in  the  teacher's 
ability. 

A  weakness  in  the  work  of  many  teachers  is  that 
of  either  ignoring  or  unconsciously  disregarding 
the  vital  relation  sustained  by  each  lesson  problem 
to  the  one  immediately  preceding  it  and  the  one 
succeeding  it.  It  is  not  infrequently  the  case  that 
the  lesson  for  the  day  has  been  determined  solely 
by  dividing  the  number  of  pages  contained  in  the 
text  book  by  the  possible  number  of  lesson  periods 
to  be  given  to  the  subject.  An  equally  serious  de- 
fect, and  one  as  prevalent  in  teaching,  is  the  fail- 
ure to  consider  the  relation  sustained  by  the  les- 
son problem  of  one  subject  to  that  of  other 
subjects  in  the  curriculum.  Such  careless  assign- 
ments result  in  unbalanced  lessons,  and  their 
effect  upon  the  pupil  is  unbalanced  effort.  At  .one 
time  he  is  heavily  overtaxed ;  while  at  another  he 
finds  his  task  mere  child's  play.  To  the  irrational 
assignment  of  the  lesson  may  be  traced  much  of 
the  dissatisfaction  and  discouragement  that  some- 
times beset  the  strongest  member  of  the  class. 

Method  of  Lesson  Assignment.— The  method 
which  should  be  followed  in  the  assignment  of  les- 


THE  LESSON  157 

sons  may  be  stated  as  follows :  Assign  lesson 
problems  to  a  class  by  subjects;  then,  if  necessary, 
state  the  pages  of  the  text  which  treat  the  subject. 
The  term  subject  is  preferable  to  the  term  topic. 
Subject  suggests  more,  and  avoids  confusion. 
Many  experienced  teachers  interpret  the  term 
topic  to  signify  the  heading  of  paragraphs  as 
given  in  the  text  books.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the 
teacher  to  announce  hurriedly,  with  comparatively 
little  or  no  forethought,  as  a  lesson  merely  some 
definite  number  of  pages  or  paragraphs.  "For 
the  next  lesson,  take  the  next  twenty  pages," 
"Take  the  next  ten  paragraphs,"  "Take  down  to 
the  bottom  of  page  sixty,"  "Take  the  next  fifteen 
problems,"  are  lesson  assignments  not  unfamiliar 
to  students  in  many  schools  of  the  present  day. 

The  subject  of  the  lesson  problem  and  the  aim 
of  the  problem  should  not  be  confused.  The  sub-  o?  the  lesson, 
ject  is  the  statement  or  title  of  the  problem ;  the 
aim  is  the  dominant  motive  for  study.  In  each 
lesson  problem  a  twofold  aim  is  to  be  considered, 
that  of  the  teacher  and  that  of  the  student.  The 
teacher's  aim  comprehends  the  larger  and  more 
general  purpose  of  the  lesson,  while  the  student's 
aim  is  necessarily  concrete  and  limited.  For  ex- 
ample, the  subject  of  a  lesson  problem  in  Beading 
as  assigned  may  be  Eugene  Field's  "Wynken 
Blynken,  and  Nod." 

Teacher's  Aim:  To  help  the  children  to  appre-  The  teacher's 
ciate  the  beauty  of  the  poem,  and  to  enjoy  a  lull- 
aby in  poetry  as  well  as  in  music. 

Student's  Aim:    To  read  and  enjoy  a  lullaby 
in  poetry. 


158         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

In  order  that  the  student  may  grasp  easily  and 
readily  the  significance  of  the  lesson  problem,  and 
be  inspired  to  begin  his  task  with  the  interest  that 
insures  success,  the  statement  of  the  problem  and 
its  aims  must  be  "  clear,  definite,  short,  and  attrac- 
°ro?iem8Bon  tive."  Lack  of  clearness  and  definiteness  in  les- 
son assignment  has  been  frequently  the  cause  of 
a  serious  crisis  both  in  the  work  of  the  class  and 
in  the  discipline  of  the  room.  Not  only  does  the 
pupil  fail  to  accomplish  his  task,  but  he  becomes 
careless  and  inattentive,  and  often  discouragred. 
The  result  is  no  less  disastrous  when,  for  any  rea- 
son, the  lesson  subject  fails  to  arouse  the  interest 
necessary  to  stimulate  effort.  It  may  occur  that 
just  at  a  crucial  point  when  the  pupil  might  easily 
be  charged  with  a  burning  desire  to  know  more  of 
his  subject,  a  cold,  mechanical  statement  of  the  les- 
son problem  may  cool  the  ardor  and  enthusiasm 
which  he  already  felt. 

The  use  of  the  subject  method  of  lesson  assign- 
ment, as  indicated  in  the  outset,  does  not  forbid  all 
reference  to  pages  and  paragraphs.  A  student 
trained  to  rely  upon  the  page  or  the  paragraph 
may  find  difficulty  at  first  in  keeping  in  mind  his 
specific  lesson  problem,  and  reference  to  page  and 
paragraph  may  be  of  much  assistance  to  him. 
Again,  the  teacher  may  wish  to  lay  special 
emphasis  upon  some  important  principle  or  fact 
or  some  unusual  viewpoint  advanced  by  a  partic- 
ular author.  Information  as  to  the  page  and  para- 
graph in  which  the  material  may  be  found  saves 
the  time  and  conserves  the  energy  of  the  student. 

The  advantages  of  assigning  a  specific  problem 


THE   LESSON  159 

to  a  class,  rather  than  following  the  time-worn  cus- 
tom of  designating  a  definite  number  or  pages  or 
of  paragraphs,  specifically  enumerating  each, 
seem  self-evident,  yet  a  contrast  between  the  two 
methods  may  prove  valuable.  A  lesson  problem 
assigned  with  clearly  stated  subject  and  aim  fur- 
nishes the  student  a  definite  lesson  idea  which 
attracts  and  holds  his  attention.  When  it  is  as- 
signed by  pages  and  paragraphs,  there  is  nothing 
to  engage  his  attention  but  mechanical  facts  and 
barren  symbols,  which  limit  his  investigation  to 
one  text  book,  and  circumscribe  his  point  of  view 
to  that  of  a  single  author.  It  is  safe  to  add  that 
in  such  case  further  research  beyond  the  text  book 
used  as  a  basis  of  the  work  would  be  made  by  very 
few.  On  the  other  hand,  the  assignment  of  a  les- 
son problem  furnishes  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  the  use  of  supplementary  material,  which  adds 
zest  to  the  study  of  the  lesson  assigned.  Each  stu- 
dent is  then  free  to  do  the  minimum  of  work 
required,  or  to  attempt  personal  explorations  into 
new  fields  for  the  discovery  of  new  facts.  A  whole 
kingdom  of  knowledge  and  truth  opens  before  him, 
and  he  realizes  that  it  may  be  his  through  individ- 
ual effort.  The  feeding  instinct,  hitherto  active 
only  in  satisfying  physical  wants,  becomes  a  pow- 
erful force  that  compels  earnest  search  for  truth 
for  the  gratification  of  mental  hunger.  By  this 
plan  an  entirely  new  standard  is  presented  to  the 
student.  He  must  do  the  required  minimum  of 
work.  He  may  do  the  maximum  of  his  individual 
capacity.  This  standard  for  the  student  solves  at 
once  for  the  teacher  that  most  vexing  problem  of 


160 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  subject 
plan  provides 
for  home 
work. 


Other  prob- 
lems provided 
for. 


Connection  of 
home  and 
school. 


adapting  the  lesson  to  the  class  so  that  while 
ample  provision  is  made  both  for  the  slow  or  poor- 
ly prepared  pupil,  and  also  for  the  bright,  en- 
ergetic student,  so  that  he  does  not  lose  interest 
for  want  of  work.  To  such  a  student  the  home, 
and  the  community  also,  furnish  opportunities 
both  for  the  gaining  of  knowledge  material  and 
for  its  application. 

This  plan  provides  for  Home  Work,  that  much 
debated  question.  Home  work,  it  should  be  under- 
stood, however,  does  not  mean  necessarily  the  so- 
lution of  problems  in  arithmetic,  the  learning  of 
facts  in  history,  or  the  mechanical  reproduction  of 
matter  in  reading.  It  is  that  phase  of  supplemen- 
tary work  in  which  the  home  and  the  school  are 
brought  into  close  connection.  The  study  of  the 
social  viewpoint  of  church  and  society,  of  govern- 
ment and  society,  of  business  and  society,  has  pen- 
etrated the  almost  petrified  ideals  of  education 
and  its  purposes,  and  radically  changed  both  the 
methods  of  instruction  and  the  perspective  of  the 
student.  A  new  note  has  sounded,  and  the  prob- 
lem of  "school  and  society''  has  become  an  im- 
portant member  of  the  social  study  group. 

Parent  and  Teachers'  Associations,  Mothers' 
Clubs,  and  Fathers'  Clubs,  for  the  study  of  child 
nature  and  child  needs,  the  introduction  of  the  in- 
dustrial and  manual  arts  into  the  courses  of  study, 
and  the  maintaining  of  night  schools  and  all-year 
round  schools,  are  the  outgrowths  of  this  new  view 
point  of  the  school  as  a  real  life  experience.  It  is 
an  important  part  of  the  school  problem  to  con- 
nect the  home  and  the  school  in  such  a  manner 


THE   LESSON  161 

that  the  student  himself  will  feel  this  vital  rela- 
tion. 

The  perspective  of  the  student  of  the  present 
day  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  student 
of  the  past.  He  no  longer  thinks  that  he  will  some  f 
day  have  need  of  the  knowledge  he  is  getting.  He  tue  student, 
feels  that  he  is  learning,  is  enjoying,  and  is  using 
each  day  every  lesson  he  learns.  "The  present 
use"  theory  permeates  the  entire  realm  of  school 
activities.  Vague  "school-room"  ideas  are  dis- 
carded, and  the  present  realization  of  the  truths 
presented  is  emphasized.  Book  facts  and  rules 
are  replaced  by  problems  of  home  and  life ;  those 
relating  to  the  production  and  consumption  of 
food  supplies,  to  the  distribution  and  expenditure 
of  money,  to  the  justice  or  injustice  of  laws  gov- 
erning social  life.  Through  these,  the  student  de- 
velops an  appreciation  of  the  genuineness  of 
knowledge,  and  the  value  of  its  possession.  Thus 
the  school  becomes  his  natural  business  center 
or  laboratory,  where  he  may  go  to  work  out  his 
individual  problems,  while  his  home  becomes  the 
great  store  house  which  supplies  the  necessary 
materials  for  his  lesson  problems  and  opportuni- 
ties for  their  application.  As  a  result,  the  student 
feels  not  only  that  he  should  work  or  must  work, 
but  that  he  may  work. 

Application  of  the  Method. — In  its  practical 
application,  the  method  of  assigning  lesson  prob- 
lems to  students  may  be  adapted  to  suit  all  con- 
ditions of  the  school.  A  seeming  difficulty  in  the 
use  of  this  method  in  some  subjects,  especially  in  The  scarclty 
the  lower  grades,  is  the  scarcity  of  material  and 


162 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  large 
problem 
first:  it* 

subdivisions 
next. 


The  teacher 
must  find 
material. 


the  absence  of  definitely  stated  lesson  subjects  in 
the  great  majority  of  text  books  used.  A  second 
probable  difficulty  is  that  the  problem,  as  often 
stated,  involves  elements  too  vague  or  too  difficult 
for  the  particular  class.  A  simple  solution  of  the 
first  difficulty  is  for  the  teacher  to  state  the  lesson 
subjects  with  the  subdivisions  necessary  to  make 
the  aim  of  each  conform  to  the  needs  of  the  par- 
ticular class  group;  in  assigning  lesson  problems 
in  which  there  are  several  subdivisions,  to  state  in 
the  first  assignment  the  large  lesson  problem,  and 
then  assign  from  day  to  day  each  subdivision  of 
the  work. 

Teachers  of  the  primary  grades,  more  than 
those  of  other  classes,  are  confronted  with  the 
task  not  only  of  developing  subjects  and  aims  in 
the  lesson  assigned  for  their  pupils,  but  that  of 
providing  practically  all  the  material  needed.  For 
these  grades  are  found  very  few  texts  that  furnish 
enough  material  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  child. 
However,  there  is  always  an  abundance  of  mate- 
rial for  the  teacher  who  is  willing  to  pay  the  price 
of  individual  effort  in  collecting  and  classify- 
ing it. 

The  following  lesson  problems  are  illustrative : 
for  a  reading  lesson  on  Home  Life,  "My  Pets;99 
for  a  Nature  Study  lesson  on  Home  Life,  "How 
we  grow  our  vegetables/'  The  sources  of  the  ma- 
terial are  abundant  in  the  child's  experiences, 
from  which  the  teacher  may  develop  her  subject 
matter.  Most  of  the  text 'books  used  in  the  inter- 
mediate grades  have  lesson  problems  definitely 
stated.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  probably  found 


THE  LESSON  163 

in  the  subjects  of  spelling,  geography,  and  arith- 
metic. To  use  this  method  of  assignment  in  spell- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  group  or  classify  the  words 
as  convenience  or  use  may  suggest ;  that  is,  if  the 
text  book  used  has  only  a  miscellaneous  collection 
of  words  indiscriminately  compiled,  the  words 
may  be  classified  as  "home  words,"  "simple 
words,"  "words  ending  in"  er,  etc.  It  is  neces- 
sary  also  to  divide  the  text  book  into  sections, 
either  by  groups  of  pages  or  groups  of  exercises, 
suited  to  the  particular  class  group.  Such  a 
grouping  necessitates  much  previous  preparation 
by  the  teacher,  and  such  an  assignment  would  re- 
quire careful  study  and  selection  on  the  part  of 
the  student.  For  example,  a  lesson  in  spelling  may 
be  stated  thus :  ' '  Select  from  Section  A  all  words 
relating  to  home ;  from  Section  C,  all  words  relat- 
ing  to  business." 

The  use  of  this  method  in  Geography  and  Arith- 
metic may  appear  at  first  impracticable,  as  the 
subdivisions  of  the  larger  groups  do  not  seem  to 
be  clearly  enough  defined  and  sufficiently  distin- 
guished to  furnish  the  definite  lesson  problem. 
Upon  closer  study,  however,  it  is  found  to  be  as 
practicable  in  these  as  in  the  other  subjects  of  the 
course.  For  example : 

In  Geography — The  Cultivation  of  Cotton  in 
the  South.  Student  assignment:  "The  Manufac- 
facturing  Industry  of  Cotton  Goods." 

In  Arithmetic — Lesson  Study,  "Interest  and  the  Arithmetic, 
legal  rate."    Student's  Problem:  "Which  is  a 
better  investment,  to  purchase  a  house  and  lot  for 
$5,000,  or  to  rent  the  same  property  at  $40  per 


164 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Principles 
for  lesson 
assignment. 


miles  for 
assignment 
of  the  lesson 


month,  money  being  worth  10  per  cent  per  an- 
num 1" 

Rules  for  Lesson  Assignment.-— In  assigning  a 
lesson  problem  a  serious  question  is,  How  much 
explanation  shall  be  given  to  the  student  in  order 
that  he  may  begin  his  task  with  understanding 
and  confidence?  He  must  know  something  of  the 
goal  which  he  is  seeking,  and  the  necessary  means 
by  which  he  may  attain  it.  The  problem  is  how 
much  to  give,  and  still  not  give  too  much.  Often 
a  teacher,  through  elaborate  explanations  and 
enumeration  of  details,  suggests  that  some  para- 
graphs are  important,  some  difficult,  and  some 
non-essential,  before  the  student  himself  has  had 
a  chance  for  choice.  By  doing  this  the  teacher 
dulls  rather  than  whets  the  student's  curiosity, 
and  leaves  little  for  him  to  do.  The  process  of 
thought  involves  observation  and  comparison,  se- 
lection and  choice.  The  student  should  have  the 
chance  to  weigh  and  consider,  select  and  use. 
Only  in  this  manner  can  there  be  any  real  mental 
growth  for  the  student.  He  must  "  learn  to  do  by 
doing." 

Some  excellent  rules  to  be  observed  in  explain- 
ing a  lesson  problem  are  these : 

1.  Give  only  such  explanations  on  the  new  les- 
son as  will  stimulate  the  student  to    personal 
research. 

2.  Do  nothing  for  the  student  that  he  can  do 
for  himself  without  necessary  waste  of  time. 

3.  State  the  problem  and  its  aim  briefly,  yet 
clearly.    Leave  the  student  to  interpret  it. 


THE   LESSON  165 

4.  See  that  the  student  understands  his  aim, 
and  is  conscious  that  it  is  Ms. 

5.  Give  definite  references  for  supplementary 
work,  yet  leave  latitude  for  the  student's  own  ef- 
forts in  collecting  additional  material. 

One  of  the  faults  of  youth  is  inability  to  dis- 
criminate either  in  thought  or  in  action.  Ques- 
tion the  average  student  of  the  present  day  on  the 
more  serious  of  our  current  problems,  whether 
commercial,  social,  political,  or  religious,  and  the 
dearth  of  individual  thought  and  personal  opinion 
is  surprising.  Upon  whom  shall  censure  for  this 
weakness  be  placed?  Surely,  not  upon  the  student 
entirely.  It  belongs  in  some  measure  to  the  time-  ln> 

worn  custom  of  the  teacher's  posing  too  much  as 
authority,  allowing  himself  to  be  regarded  by  the 
students  as  the  ultimate  source  of  information. 
The  practice  of  explaining  in  the  lesson  assign- 
ment much  that  the  student  should  work  out  for 
himself,  is  one  of  the  serious  defects  of  teaching 
in  this  manner.  A  habit  is  cultivated  by  the  stu- 
dent of  either  consciously  or  unconsciously  de- 
pending upon  some  one  else  to  do  his  task,  and  of 
expecting  his  own  negligence  to  be  overlooked  or 
excused. 

Some  reading  teachers  give  in  the  lesson  assign- 
ment the  pronunciation  of  all  new  words,  and  thus 
prevent  the  student  from  feeling  the  need  of  the 
study  of  pronunciation.  It  is  no  more  the  duty  of 
the  teacher  to  give  the  pupil  the  pronunciation  of 
the  words  in  his  reading,  than  it  is  to  furnish  him 
the  solution  of  the  problems  in  arithmetic.  This 
false  notion  of  helpfulness  is  not  confined  to  the 


166 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Pupils  should 
be  trained 
to  Independ- 
ence. 


Proper  time 
for  the  lesson 
assignment. 


Time  of  as- 
signment tie- 
pendent  upon 
nature  of  the 
lesson. 


teaching  of  reading,  language  and  spelling,  but  it 
is  found  among  teachers  of  all  branches  of  study. 
Every  means  should  be  employed  to  correct  in  stu- 
dents the  habit  of  careless  dependence,  and  in 
teachers  the  tendency  to  encourage  it. 

The  Time  for  the  Assignment  of  the  Lesson.— 
The  time  for  making  the  lesson  assignment  should 
be  carefully  considered.  Some  conditions  make  it 
preferable  to  assign  the  next  lesson-subject  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period,  others  at  the  close ;  while 
in  still  other  cases,  it  is  a  matter  of  little  conse- 
quence when  the  assignment  is  made.  If  a  new 
subject  or  a  new  division  of  work  is  to  be  under- 
taken, the  assignment  should  be  made  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  period.  Needed  explanations  of  the 
subject  and  of  its  relations  to  the  work  previously 
completed  should  be  given  at  length  and  stated 
clearly,  when  the  mind  of  the  student  is  fresh  and 
in  a  receptive  state.  Again,  if  the  lesson  to  be  as- 
signed enriches  and  completes  the  lesson  of  the 
day,  the  proper  time  for  assignment  is  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  period,  even  though  it  may  necessi- 
tate taking  some  time  from  the  discussion  of  the 
day's  problem.  The  use  of  supplementary  texts, 
magazines,  and  other  material,  has  become  almost 
a  necessity.  The  value  of  these  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  definite  instruction  as  to  their  use ;  and 
as  this  instruction  requires  both  time  and  thought, 
it  can  be  given  to  the  best  advantage  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  period. 

In  many  cases,  the  problem  of  how  to  study  is 
much  more  serious  than  the  problem  of  what  to 
study ;  and  this,  too,  must  be  considered  in  the  as- 


THE  LESSON  167 

signment.  When  this  condition  is  evident,  the 
needed  instruction  should  not  be  delayed  until  the 
end  of  the  period,  for  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
the  student  be  taught  how  to  approach  his  task. 
It  may  be  that  he  is  attacking  his  problem  by  the 
so-called  " Muscular  Method/'  and  wasting  much 
time  at  his  task.  He  may  be  attempting  merely  to 
memorize  the  truths  withoat  grasping  their  sig- 
nificance. Into  whatever  error  he  may  have  fallen, 
he  is  in  need  of  help.  The  teacher  must  be  able 
to  utilize  his  own  experience  and  knowledge  of 
mental  processes  in  order  to  appreciate  the  stu- 
dent's difficulty,  and  to  direct  him  in  the  develop- 
ment of  keener  perception  and  a  more  vivid  imag- 
ination. It  is  here  revealed  that  the  teacher  must 
possess  both  knowledge  and  training.  He  must 
know  his  subject  well.  He  must  know  the  opinions 
of  the  best  authorities  on  the  subject  he  teaches,  Thete»cher'§ 
and  he  must  have  an  opinion  himself.  He  must  S£owifd*e 
know  the  particular  reason  his  subject  is  offered  aad  traluillg> • 
in  the  learning  process,  whether  for  the  develop- 
ment of  judgment,  memory,  feeling,  or  will.  He 
must  know,  too,  something  of  the  general  life  prob- 
lems, and  be  a  man  among  men.  Above  all,  he 
must  know  the  mind  of  the  student,  and  be  able  to 
give  the  needed  help  at  the  needed  time.  A 
teacher  so  equipped  will  realize  that  correct  as- 
signment is  as  important  for  wholesome  mental 
growth  as  the  administering  of  proper  drugs  to 
relieve  physical  ills ;  and  when  occasion  demands, 
he  will  take  the  time  necessary  to  give  instruction 
as  to  how  the  student  may  expend  his  energy  to 
the  best  advantage. 


168         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

Sometimes  there  are  reasons  for  deferring  the 
assignment  to  the  close  of  the  recitation  period. 
The  lesson  problem  may  be  a  continuation  of  a 
larger  lesson  group  which  does  not  need  addi- 
tional explanation  by  the  teacher,  and  the  time 
may  be  needed  for  the  study  of  the  lesson  prob- 
lem previously  assigned.  This,  however,  rarely 
occurs  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Again,  the  lesson  of  the  day  may  furnish  a  basis 
for  a  better  understanding  of  the  one  succeeding. 
In  this  case,  time  for  assignment  should  be  allowed 
at  the  end  of  the  period.  A  teacher  should  always 
remember,  however,  that  a  recitation  period, 
whether  in  a  well  regulated  school  system  or  a 
small  one-teacher  rural  school  should  end  at  a 
fixed  time. 

Disregard  of  promptness  and  punctuality  in  this 
particular  encourages  irregularity  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  towards  his  own  obligations  and  respon- 
sibilities. The  teacher  should,  therefore,  allow 
the  assignment  of  the  lesson  before  the  time  to 
close  the  recitation. 

If  none  of  the  above  mentioned  conditions  exist, 
the  lesson  assignment  may  be  made  at  the  discre- 
cretion  or  convenience  of  the  teacher. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  LESSON  CONTINUED 

II.      THE  LESSON  PREPARATION 

The  second  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  Les- 
son— The  Lesson  Preparation  or  Lesson  Study — 
involves  the  whole  problem  of  the  art  of  study.  The  second 
For  the  student  it  is  a  question  of  "How  to 
Study,"  while  for  the  teacher  it  is  a  problem  both 
of  "How  to  Study"  and  of  "Teaching  How  to 
Study."  Each  of  these  is  a  problem  of  great  diffi- 
culty and  great  significance. 

Very  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  real 
art  of  study.  Few  books  have  been  written  on  the 
subject,  and  very  little  time  has  been  given  to  its 
problems.  Discussions  of  this  phase  of  the  learn- 
ing process  and  directions  as  to  its  practice  have 
been  for  the  most  part  limited  to  the  negative  side 
—"How not  to  Study." 

Incorrect  Methods  of  Study. — There  are  many 
methods  of  study.  The  Chinese  custom  in  which 
students  line  themselves  around  the  room,  face  to 
the  wall,  and  repeat  the  exercises  verbatim  in  the 
highest  pitch  of  voice,  does  not  seem  far  removed 
in  its  crudeness  from  the  audible  whisper  and  lip 
movement  used  in  study  by  students  in  many  of 
our  American  schools.  Parallel  with  these  meth- 


170 


PKINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Memory 
methods. 


Mental  loaf, 
toff. 


Superficial 

study. 


ods  is  the  plan  of  going  over  and  over  again  five, 
six,  or  more  times,  the  prescribed  lesson,  depend- 
ing upon  mere  repetition  and  memory  to  fix  knowl- 
edge. The  number  of  times  one  has  repeatedly 
"gone  over  the  lesson''  or  the  number  of  hours 
he  has  devoted  to  it,  indicates  little  as  to  the 
amount  of  study  he  has  given  it.  The  learning 
processes  are  mental,  not  physical.  The  term 
"muscular  method"  already  referred  to,  seems 
particularly  appropriate  to  these  ridiculous  ef- 
forts at  study. 

The  attempt  is  often  made  to  study  when  the 
mind  is  in  a  state  of  passive  attention,  listless  and 
inactive.  In  this  condition  of  mind,  the  student, 
even  though  able  to  repeat  the  words  of  the  text 
and  to  give  explanations  of  the  problems  involved, 
loses  practically  all  the  kernel  of  the  truth,  for  he 
can  be  only  partially  attentive  to  the  work  in 
hand.  The  effect  of  this  kind  of  study  is  most 
hazardous.  Mental  loafing  is  detrimental  to  char- 
acter ;  there  is  nothing  which  more  surely  destroys 
mental  vigor  and  moral  strength.  Some  of  the 
results  of  this  method  of  study  are  indecision,  in- 
difference, superficialty,  and  general  inefficiency. 

Probably  the  most  common  of  all  methods  of 
study  is  that  of  mere  memorizing.  The  student 
who  habitually  follows  this  plan  fails  to  compre- 
hend the  difference  between  information  and 
knowledge.  He  fails  to  see  that  facts  within 
themselves  are  valueless.  Histories,  encyclo- 
pedias, and  dictionaries  are  compendiums  of  facts, 
but  they  are  cold,  lifeless  words  unless  spirit  is 
breathed  into  them  by  the  individual  reader. 
There  is  no  magic  power  in  mere  words,  and  the 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  171 

student  trained  by  this  memory  method  has  little 
besides  words  as  the  result  of  his  effort.  He 
knows  some  words  and  a  few  facts,  which  are  mere 
skeletons  of  knowledge,  and  these  he  may  repeat 
in  a  parrot-like  manner,  but  he  lacks  the  power 
to  think,  to  feel,  and  to  do.  His  stock  of  ideas  is 
pitifully  small.  The  reason  for  the  prevalent  use 
of  this  method  of  study  is  this:  the  student  has 
been  taught  that  the  lesson  requirement  is  the  re- 
production of  facts.  Accordingly,  he  depends 
upon  a  mere  memorized  lesson  from  the  text  to 
carry  him  safely  through  the  ordeal  of  the  recita- 
tion. If  he  can  make  excuse  that  his  book  is  lost, 
the  lesson  torn  out  of  his  text,  or  that  he  did  not 
know  where  the  lesson  is,  his  comfort  both  at  home 
and  at  school  is  assured.  Both  the  parent  and  the 
teacher  accept  without  further  question  his  ex- 
cuse, and  he  feels  no  sense  of  obligation  to  regain 
lost  opportunities  or  to  reinstate  himself  in  his 
class. 

Another  habit  equally  harmful  to  study  is  the 
plan  of  guessing.  To  the  student  who  guesses,  the 
relation  of  ideas  has  no  significance.  The  process 
of  reasoning  does  not  enter  as  a  factor  in  his 
study.  He  has  no  other  thought  than  that  of  de- 
pending  upon  luck  to  determine  the  course  of 
action  or  to  meet  difficulties  as  they  occur. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  improper  methods  of 
study  in  use  at  present  in  our  best  schools,  among 
our  best  students,  and  tolerated  by  some  of  our 
best  teachers.  They  are  proof  of  the  fact  that 
knowledge  of  how  to  study  is  meager  among 
teachers  as  well  as  among  students.  The  evil 


172 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Effect*  of 
wrong*  meth- 
ods of  study. 


Keal  study. 


motive  for 
•tody. 


Factors  of 
•tudy. 


effects  of  these  methods  are  evident  throughout 
the  student's  career.  While  in  school,  he  dislikes 
his  studies,  his  teacher,  and  his  school,  and  is 
known  by  his  fellow  students  as  a  chronic  grum- 
bler. Having  formed  no  stable  habits  of  thought 
or  of  action,  he  must  through  his  later  life  con- 
tinue to  depend  upon  others  for  guidance  and 
direction,  and  he  usually  becomes  known  to  the 
world  as  the  "  knocker  "  or  the  "  pessimist ' '. 

Real  Study. — *  *  Real  study  involves  the  close  ap- 
plication of  the  mind  to  a  subject  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  a  consciously  felt  need.''  This  feeling  of 
mental  hunger  is  not  very  common  among  stu- 
dents, even  in  the  advanced  years  of  work.  A  test 
of  this  point  recently  made  in  a  group  of  college 
students  disclosed  the  fact  that  a  large  majority 
of  them  has  little  conception  of  what  is  meant  by 
mental  hunger.  Some  students  thought  it  absurd 
that  one  should  be  expected  to  enjoy  a  lesson,  as 
he  would  enjoy  a  baseball  game  or  a  good  book. 

A  consciousness  of  intellectual  need  is  a  domi- 
nant, compelling  motive  for  study.  It  quickens 
observation,  awakens  interest,  and  prompts  action. 
There  are  other  factors  necessary,  however,  to 
successful  attainment.  These  are  (1)  careful  ex- 
amination of  material  for  study,  (2)  selection  of 
the  correct  elements  through  (a)  comparison,  and 
(b)  the  grouping  of  them  in  proper  sequence  into 
a  sound  conclusion.  To  complete  the  process  still 
another  factor  is  needed,  that  of  using  the  knowl- 
edge material,  without  which  it  would  be  "mental 
debris",  entirely  worthless.  No  one  may  be  said 
to  study  who  does  not  feel  the  need  to  investigate, 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  173 

generalize,  and  apply.  With  these  principles  as 
a  foundation,  a  systematic  plan  for  study  can  be 
made  that  will  provide  an  intelligent  guide  for 
both  the  student  and  the  teacher  in  the  solution 
of  the  problems,  "how  to  study"  and  "teaching 
how  to  study "  the  assigned  lesson  problem. 

The  plan  for  the  lesson  study  on  the  part  of  the 
student  varies  only  in  perspective  from  that  of 
the  teacher.  Each  plan  is  based  upon  the  learn- 
ing processes  of  acquisition,  assimilation,  and 
conclusion.  The  teacher's  plan  provides  for  the 
presentation  of  the  subject  material  through  the 
thought  processes.  The  student's  plan  provides 
for  the  use  of  these  processes  in  comprehending 
and  applying  the  material  presented. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Student. — There  is  no 
doubt  that  with  no  lesson  plan  a  student  may  "get 
his  lesson",  upon  which  he  may  "recite",  in  the 
commonly  accepted  meaning  of  the  process.  How-  ^^  Btudent,8 
ever,  just  as  the  scientist  follows  a  specific  guide  preparation, 
based  upon  scientific  principles,  so  the  student,  if 
he  is  to  employ  the  mental  processes  in  real  study, 
must  follow  a  plan  based  upon  these  processes. 
Any  plan  for  study  in  order  to  be  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  individual  student  must  correspond 
to  the  different  activities  in  the  learning  pro- 
cesses. 

The  first  step  in  the  student's  lesson  plan  is  stepginth» 
investigation  of  the  knowledge  material  demanded  Jgjf nt'*  les*° 
by  the  lesson  problem.    There  is  involved  in  this 
process  (1)  the  selection  of  the  elements  involved, 
(2)   supplementing  the  material  from  personal 
experience  and  observation.    In  the  selection  of 


174 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Supplemen- 
tary m 
tonal. 


Wo  standard 
of  the  worth 
of  material. 


specific  elements  in  a  problem  the  student  de- 
velops the  power  of  perception,  of  choice,  and 
individual  thought.  He  learns  to  look  for  ma- 
terial and  to  choose  what  he  needs  for  the  solu- 
tion of  his  problem.  This  naturally  leads  to  the 
use  of  supplementary  material,  both  from  his 
own  store-house  of  knowledge  and  from  outside 
sources.  Many  students  leave  school  unable  to 
accomplish  the  task  of  reading  a  book,  comparing 
it  with  another,  and  giving  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
value  of  each.  Fully  as  many  are  unaware  that 
to  be  well  educated  includes  much  more  than  to 
have  scholarship.  The  student  who  is  properly 
taught  will  be  able  to  select  and  utilize  material 
collected  from  every  source.  He  has  a  respect  for 
truth  wherever  it  is  found,  whether  in  the  pages 
of  books,  in  the  world  of  nature,  or  in  the  lives 
of  men. 

Effective  use  of  supplementary  material  in- 
volves the  process  (1)  of  judging  the  worth  of  the 
material,  and  (2)  of  classifying  or  organizing  it 
systematically.  If  this  practice  is  followed  in  the 
student's  preparation  of  the  lesson,  a  habit  of 
logical  thought  is  established.  The  value  of  any 
material  can  be  understood  only  through  com- 
parison with  other  material.  A  typical  poem  or 
scientific  fact  given  the  student  in  the  text  or  by 
the  teacher  furnishes  a  standard  measure  by 
which  the  student  is  enabled  to  weigh,  consider, 
and  select  the  essentials  from  the  non-essentials, 
and  so  to  reach  a  correct  conclusion  for  himself 
as  to  the  worth  of  the  poem,  or  other  subject  of 
thought. 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  175 

One  step  needful  to  reach  a  broad  generaliza- 
tion is  open-mindedness,  "willingness  to  wait  till 
the  evidence  is  all  in. ' '  In  hasty  generalizing  there 
is  danger  of  reaching  faulty  conclusions.  This  is 
often  the  result  of  accepting  statements  without 
sufficient  data  upon  which  to  base  a  conclusion.  A 
student  need  not  assume  an  attitude  of  doubt,  but 
in  his  study  he  should  seek  reasons  for  believing 
or  rejecting  the  statements  considered.  The  stu- 
dent should  have  the  courage  of  his  convictions ; 
he  should  be  neither  overbold  through  conceit  nor 
a  weakling  through  timidity. 

In  the  last  step  of  the  study  plan,  that  of  appli- 
cation, the  student  applies  the  test  of  actual  ex- 
periment and  thus  proves  for  himself  the  worth 
of  the  knowledge  gained.  In  this  step,  great 
latitude  is  given  for  the  development  of  individ- 
uality, originality,  and  self-direction.  There  is 
probably  no  element  of  character  in  greater  de- 
mand in  social  life  or  one  more  neglected  in  the 
schools  than  initiative — the  power  to  start  a  move- 
ment and  keep  it  going.  Some  one  has  said  that, 
"our  schools  are  training  a  thousand  men  to  Pewl)ellllg. 
follow  to  one  who  can  lead."  Not  until  the 
school  puts  the  proper  emphasis  upon  the  appli- 
cation of  knowledge  will  the  student  become  self- 
confident  and  independent. 

No  special  reference  has  been  made  to  the  use 
of  memory  or  of  any  other  specific  faculty  of  the 
mind.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  learning  in- 
volves the  activity  of  all  the  mental  processes  of 
perception,  memory,  imagination,  thought,  feel- 
ing, and  will.  Without  the  activity  of  all  these 


176 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Plant  for 

study  devel- 
op g-ood 
habits. 


Students 
should  "be 
trained  to 
teat  them- 
selves. 


Students 
should  pre- 
pare sched- 
ule for  daily 
study. 


in  each  step  of  the  study  plan,  the  observations 
will  be  superficial,  the  conclusions  incorrect,  and 
the  application  weak  and  faulty. 

A  logically  developed  plan  of  study  is  an 
effective  means  of  establishing  fixed  habits  of 
thought  and  action,  whether  for  the  teacher  or  the 
pupil.  By  such  plan  there  is  established  a  fixed 
standard  by  which  one  may  test  his  efforts  and 
determine  his  progress  and  learn  what  further 
aid  he  needs  in  reaching  his  goal. 

Few  students,  even  in  our  best  schools,  are 
trained  to  test  for  themselves  their  preparation 
of  the  lesson  problem.  In  mathematics  and  other 
sciences  they  may  presume  that  they  have  meas- 
ured their  progress  when  they  know  that  they 
have  solved  perhaps  ten  out  of  twelve  of  the 
problems  assigned,  but  usually  the  only  test 
which  they  apply  to  their  work  is  to  determine 
whether  they  will  be  able  to  recite  if  called  upon. 

Through  systematic  study  the  student  learns  a 
life  lesson  of  order  in  all  things,  whether  the  task 
be  great  or  small. 

An  important  consideration  in  systematic  study 
is  the  time  element.  Students  should  be  trained 
to  use  a  program  for  study.  It  is  not  recom- 
mended that  a  daily  schedule  of  study  periods  be 
made  by  the  teacher  for  the  student.  Students 
should  be  trained  to  make  for  themselves  the 
practical  applications  of  the  lessons  and  to  deter- 
mine for  themselves  the  distribution  of  their  time 
outside  the  study  period.  The  excuse  is  often 
given  by  the  student,  "I  didn't  have  time".  A 
student  should  be  able  to  estimate  how  much  he 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  177 

can  do  and  how  long  he  will  need  to  complete  each 
task.  In  schools  for  defective  and  delinquent 
children  specific  tests  are  made  to  determine  each 
student's  capacity  and  his  progress,  and  a  per- 
manent record  is  kept.  In  common  schools,  how- 
ever, neither  teacher  nor  student  seems  to  have 
advanced  beyond  the  superficial  standard  of 
grades  as  a  measure  of  a  student's  efficiency. 
This  standard  for  the  student  is  unsatisfactory 
for  the  reason  that  the  grade  merely  represents 
to  him  the  teacher's  opinion,  while  it  is  only 
through  realization  of  his  individual  capacities 
that  he  may  himself  perceive  both  his  strong  and 
his  weak  points  and  learn  upon  what  he  needs  to 
intensify  his  efforts. 

A  most  helpful  means  of  estimating  individual 
progress  is  a  time  schedule  for  each  subject  kept 
regularly  from  period  to  period,  recording  the 
date,  the  subject,  and  the  time  for  preparation  of 
the  lesson.  The  following  schedule  card  may  be 
adapted  to  suit  the  individual  needs : 

Time  Schedule  Card. 

Date  Lesson  Subject        Time  Kequired 

Jan.  12      Surface  and  Drainage  of  the 

Southern  States  30Min. 

Jan.  13      Products  in  general  of  the 

Southern  States  30  Min. 

Jan.  14      Production  of  Cotton  in  the 

South  45  Min. 

It  is  not  the  rate  of  speed  in  thought  and  action 
which  the  student  acquires  from  the  use  of  such  a 
card.  He  learns  to  perceive  the  problems  in  their 


178 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Teaching1  in. 
volves  more 
than  instruc- 
tion. 


The  three, 
fold  taik  of 
the  teacher. 


significant  relations  of  greater  or  less  difficulty, 
together  with  the  proportion  of  time  necessary 
to  complete  a  given  task.  By  knowing  his  own 
capacities,  he  can  the  more  effectively  become 
master  of  them.  A  student  having  finally  estab- 
lished definite  habits  of  thought  and  action 
through  use  of  such  a  study  plan,  has  equipped 
himself  with  the  first  element  for  successful  re- 
search and  progress. 

Preparation  by  the  Teacher. — Viewed  by  the  in- 
experienced and  untrained  mind,  the  task  of 
teaching  ends  with  instruction,  and  the  work  of 
the  teacher  is  confined  to  the  schoolroom,  with  the 
time  limited  to  only  five  hours  per  day,  five  days 
per  week,  and  four  weeks  per  month.  Teachers 
have  been  held  responsible  merely  for  the  dis- 
semination of  facts  and  judged  as  to  their  effi- 
ciency by  the  ability  of  students  to  reproduce 
them.  Such  reproductions  by  the  students  are 
regarded  as  the  measure  of  the  teacher's  failure 
or  success. 

The  work  of  teaching,  however,  comprehends 
more  than  mere  instruction  by  the  teacher  and 
reproduction  by  the  student.  It  involves,  as  well, 
the  process  of  developing  and  training,  without 
which  instruction  would  be  futile  and  reproduc- 
tions impossible. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  is  thus  a  three-fold  one, 

(1)  of  instructing,  furnishing  knowledge  material, 

(2)  of  developing  and  aiding  the  assimilation  of 
this  material,  and  (3)  of  training,  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  about  skilful  application  of  the  knowl- 
edge gained.     With  such  an  ideal  of  the  task 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  179 

before  him,  no  real  teacher  ever  reaches  the  point 
where  he  thinks  preparation  is  unnecessary.  As 
his  work  is  more  responsible  and  far  reaching  in 
its  influence  than  that  of  a  student,  so  his 
preparation  must  be  correspondingly  more  com- 
plete and  the  more  carefully  planned. 

In  order  to  interest  the  student  and  stimulate 
him  to  the  greatest  effort  in  making  personal  re- 
search, the  teacher  himself  must  be  broad-minded 
and  progressive.  New  views  on  all  subjects  are 
being  advanced,  new  methods  of  instruction  are 
being  advocated,  and  the  supplementary  material 
to  be  found  on  every  hand  is  constantly  increasing 
in  amount  and  changing  in  character. 

Again,  no  two  groups  of  children,  though  study- 
ing the  same  lesson  problem  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, can  be  taught  in  the  same  way.  Their  Recognition 
"apperceptive  bases",  the  understanding  of  new 
ideas  through  the  old,  are  different.  They  de- 
mand  different  plans  of  approach  and  different 
illustrations.  Each  lesson  must  be  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  each  class. 

The  preparation  of  a  teacher  does  not  end  with 
refreshing  his  old  stock  of  knowledge,  collecting 
new  material,  and  adjusting  it  to  the  needs  of  the 
class.  Without  a  well  developed  lesson  plan  as 
a  part  of  his  preparation,  he  lacks  the  compass  Klndof  prep. 
which  will  guide  him  as  he  pilots  the  student  in 
his  search  for  truth.  The  lesson  plan  should  be 
logically  developed  and  suited  to  this  particular 
class  group.  As  has  been  explained,  the  lesson 
plan  for  the  teacher  differs  from  that  of  the  stu- 
dent only  in  perspective.  The  teacher 's  view- 


180 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Preparation 
of  the  lesson 
plan. 


First  step. 


Second  step. 


point  is  that  of  presenting  the  subject  matter  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  the  understanding 
and  application  of  it.  The  lesson  plan  which  he 
uses,  like  that  of  the  student,  must  follow  the 
process  of  thought. 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  a  lesson 
plan  by  a  teacher,  and  in  many  ways  one  of  the 
most  important,  is  securing  an  abundance  of  ma- 
terial for  the  lesson  problem.  An  excellent  test 
of  his  ability  as  a  real  teacher  is  his  success  in 
obtaining,  adapting,  and  putting  into  actual  use 
among  his  students,  an  abundant  supply  of  useful 
material. 

Having  the  necessary  knowledge  material  in 
hand,  the  second  step  is  its  grouping  and  classifi- 
cation for  presentation  to  the  class.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  organize  the  material  so  that  it  may 
always  be  presented  from  the  view  point  of  the 
student.  This  can  best  be  done  by  a  few  large 
group  topics  or  headings,  together  with  whatever 
minor  divisions  the  class  needs  demand.  The 
larger  topics  are  better  suited  to  the  student  mind, 
and  furnish  more  latitude  to  the  teacher  in  ad- 
justing the  work  to  the  immediate  needs  of  the 
class  group.  One  serious  criticism  made  of  stu- 
dents at  the  present  time  is  their  inability  to 
organize  and  classify  material.  The  practice 
which  comes  from  following  the  plan  just  stated 
will  aid  the  student  in  cultivating  logical  thought. 

More  specifically  stated,  the  lesson  plan  should 
provide  broad  and  general  thought  questions  that 
provoke  original  thinking.  The  questions  should 
bear  upon  the  main  divisions  of  the  outline  group 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  181 

and  serve  to  prevent  digressions  in  the  class  dis- 
cussions, and  to  stimulate  the  student  to  further 
research.  It  should  be  remembered  that  general 
questions  only  can  be  made  prior  to  the  class  ie»«onpian. 
period.  Specific  questions  relating  to  minor  de- 
tails must  be  made  as  occasions  demand.  A  few 
general  questions  serve  as  strong  cables  with 
which  to  connect  one  large  group  idea  with  an- 
other and  so  preserve  the  sequence  of  the  whole 
idea. 

Another  important  step  in  every  lesson  plan  is 
the  provision  for  general  summaries  which  unify 
the  entire  lesson  problem  into  one  complete  whole. 
Without  this  there  is  danger  that  the  student  may 
grasp  only  details  of  the  lesson;  while  through 
the  use  of  summaries  the  student  sees  the  work  Provision  for 
from  a  higher  vantage  ground  and  the  broad  view  * 
serves  as  a  stimulus  to  further  study. 

A  well  developed  plan  for  study  contains  a  list 
of  the  supplementary  material  to  be  used — illus- 
trations, poems,  and  stories  (stating  specific  chap-  Wgtof  gu 
ter  and  page  in  books  or  magazines),  pictures, 
maps,  charts,  and  plans  for  dramatization  and 
constructive  work.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant steps  of  the  lesson  plan,  as  the  care  with 
which  it  is  made  practically  determines  the  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  the  supplementary  work  of  the 
class.  Hardly  can  too  much  emphasis  be  given 
to  the  necessity  of  full  detail  and  clear,  direct 
references,  so  that  delay  will  be  avoided. 

The  last  point  to  be  considered  in  the  teacher's 
lesson  plan  is  the  provisions  for  the  assignment 
of  the  succeeding  lesson  problem.  As  has  been 


182 


PKINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Sufficient 
time  to  foe 
taken  for 
making- 
definite  plans. 


tes  9  on  Flan 
No.  1. 


shown  in  the  study  of  lesson  assignment,  the 
statement  of  a  lesson  problem  must  have  certain 
characteristics  and  be  closely  related  to  the  lesson 
of  the  preceding  day.  It  requires  both  time  and 
fore-thought  for  the  teacher  to  formulate  a  state- 
ment of  a  problem  that  will  meet  all  the  needs  of 
a  class.  It  is  not  safe  to  rely  on  the  inspiration 
of  the  moment  for  a  statement  of  the  lesson  pro- 
blem, that  possesses  all  the  essential  require- 
ments. The  subject  of  the  lesson  problem  must 
be  a  well  thought  out  and  carefully  worded  state- 
ment if  it  meets  all  the  needs  of  both  teacher  and 
student  in  the  study  of  the  succeeding  lesson. 
Whether  the  written  schedule  of  assignments 
shall  include  the  details  of  each  day's  lesson  plan, 
or  whether  the  two  shall  be  kept  separate  is  a 
mere  matter  of  choice. 

The  following  lesson  plans  may  be  used  as  il- 
lustrations of  the  type  which  teachers  should 
have  for  each  lesson  problem. 

Plan  No.  1. 

TEXT: — Tarr's  New  Physical  Geography,  pages 
55-58. 

LESSON  PLAN— YOUNG  STREAM  VALLEYS 

(Mary  E.  Kobb,  5th  grade  critic, 
Illinois  State  Normal  University.) 
Teacher's  Purpose: 

1.  To  teach  the  characteristic  features  of 
young  stream  valleys,  so  they  may  be 
recognized  and  interpreted  in  any  region. 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  183 

2.  To  form  the  basis  for  a  later  comparison  of 

young  and  mature  stream  valleys. 

3.  To  show  through  a  study  of  their  economic 

importance,  the  nature  of  man's  response 
to  his  physiographic  environment. 

Unit  of  Instruction: 

Young  Stream  Valleys. 

Organisation  of  Subject  Matter: 

1.  Characteristic  features   of  young   stream 

valleys. 

(a)  Broad,  low,  indefinite  divides. 

(b)  V-shaped  cross-section  of  valley. 

(c)  Many  falls  and  rapids. 

(d)  Many  lakes,  usually  shallow. 

(e)  Few  and  short  tributaries. 

(f )  Steep  gradient. 

2.  Their  economic  importance. 

(a)  Advantages  to  man — 

(1)  Pow*er  developed  from  falls; 

(2)  Lakes  used  as  commercial 
highway. 

(b)  Disadvantages  to  man — 

(1)  Navigation  interrupted  by  rapids 
and  falls; 

(2)  Valley  difficult  to  cross  by  roads 
and  railroads. 

Pupil's  Problem: 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  young 

stream  valley? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  it  to  man? 
Assignment:  Tarr:  New  Geography,  page  55-58. 

1.    Figure  65,  page  52. 

Which  of  the  four  diagrams  represents  a 


184         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

river  that  has  accomplished  most  in  lower- 
ing the  surface  of  the  land?  Study  the 
changed  shape  of  the  valley  in  each  dia- 
gram. 

2.  Figure  71: 

How  is  the  river  changing  its  banks? 

3.  Figure  76,  page  55 : 

What  do  you  notice  about  the  divides  in 

this  diagram? 

Why  are  lakes  present? 

4.  Eead  the  ' '  Life  History  of  a  Eiver  Valley ' ', 

pages  54  to  57,  and  study  the  illustrations. 
From  this  study  be  able  to  name  five  things 
about  such  a  river  valley. 

5.  How  will  such  a  valley  affect  commerce? 
Preparation: 

What  is  the  purpose  of  a  river?    How  does 
it  accomplish  its  purpose? 
Presentation: 

Questions  to  develop  points  in  organiza- 
tion, discussions  of  illustrations  and  dia- 
grams in  the  text,  with  use  of  as  much  out- 
side illustrative  material  as  possible  to 
cover  problems  raised  in  the  assignment. 

Plan  No.  2. 
SUBJECT  :  Solid  Measurement. 

TEXT:     Sutton   and   Bruce 's   Arithmetic,   pages 

97-99. 

LESSON  PLAN 

(George  N.  Cade,  8th  Grade  Critic, 
Illinois  State  Normal  University.) 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  185 

Teacher's  Purpose. 

To  lead  the  pupils  to  see  the  different  cubi- 
cal units  which  make  up  a  rectangular 
solid. 

Unit  of  Instruction. 

Rectangular  Solid. 

/ 

Organization  of  Subject  Matter. 

1.  Unit  solid.        Preferably  a  cubic  inch. 

1.  Length 

2.  Width 

3.  Thickness.  SSS.onPlan 

2.  Rectangular  solid. 

(a)  1.    Length       3  units 

2.  Width         1  unit 

3.  Thickness  lunit 

(b)  1.    Length       3  units 

2.  Width         3  units 

3.  Thickness  lunit 

(c)  1.    Length       3  units 

2.  Width         3  units 

3.  Thickness  3  units. 

Pupil's  Purpose. 

To  answer  questions  in  the  assignment. 

Assignment. 

How  many  inch  squares  may  be  placed  on 
a  rectangular  surface  1  in.  x  1  in.  so  as  just 
to  cover  it!  2  in.  x  1  in. !  3  in.  x  1  in.  1  4 
in.xlin.!  4in.  x  2in.?  Sin.  x  3in.?  3 
in.  x  2  in? 

Study  carefully  questions  1  to  11  inclusive 
in  article  161  on  page  97  of  your  text. 


186         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

Preparation. 

What  is  a  rectangle?  What  is  a  square! 
How  do  we  find  the  area  of  the  square? 

Presentation. 

How  many  inch  squares  are  required  to 
cover  one  row  of  squares  in  the  three-inch 
square? 

How  many  such  rows  on  the  three-inch 
square?  How  many  square  inches  on  the 
three-inch  square? 

Now  instead  of  using  squares,  use  inch 
cubes,  and  tell  how  many  may  be  placed 
so  as  to  cover  all  the  squares  in  one  row 
on  the  three-inch  square?  On  two  rows? 
On  three  rows? 

How  many  cubic  inches  are  required  to 
cover  the  square.  Give  dimensions  of  this 
rectangular  solid.  We  can  tell  this  one 
layer  of  unit-cubes.  Suppose  we  make  it 
two  inches  high,  how  many  such  layers? 
How  many  unit  cubes?  Three  layers? 
Now  give  dimensions  of  solid.  (3  in.  x 
Sin.  x  Sin.)  How  many  edges  has  this 
solid?  Corners?  Faces?  Dimensions  of 
each  face?  (Use  inch  squares  and  iron 
cubes). 

Plans  No.  3  and  4. 

In  working  out  these  model  lesson  plans,  the 
following  ideals  have  been  constantly  kept  in 
mind: 

1.  To  do  away  with  the  erroneous  idea,  which 
too  often  prevails,  that  a  lesson  unit  is  confined 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  187 

to  one  recitation,  but  rather  to  stress  the  fact  that 
more  often  it  extends  over  several  days. 

2.  To  simplify  the  lesson  plan,  and  reduce  it 
to  such  a  form  that  it  may  not  only  be  compre- 
hended by  the  average  normal  school  senior,  but 
also  followed  out  in  the  actual  teaching  process 
after  it  is  written. 

3.  To  so  word  all  questions  as  to  promote 
active  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  class. 

4.  To  provide  for  a  motive  for  thinking  by 
having  a  definite  problem  in  mind  about  which 
the  efforts  of  the  students  are  centered. 

5.  To  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  practical  use 
or  control  of  knowledge  is  the  final  test  of  the  effi- 
ciency of  teaching. 

Plan  No.  3. 

LESSON  UNIT  PLAN  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

GRADE  7  TIME  I  2  DAYS. 

THE  COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

(From  the  Training  School  of  the 
North  Texas  State  Normal  College.) 

(Maude  L.  Fiero.) 
Teacher's  Aim. 

To  so  present  the  subject  that  the  stu- 
dents will  more  fully  understand:  (1)  the 
general  law  governing  commerce,  (2)  its 
importance  to  every  nation,  state  and  com- 
munity, and  (3)  how  each  student  may  aid 
in  improving  such  conditions  in  his  own 
country  and  state. 


188 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Pupils'  Problem. 

To  find  out  why  Great  Britain  has  become 
such  a  power  in  the  commercial  world,  and 
how  other  countries  may  profit  by  her  ex- 
perience. 

Method 
Preparation. 

1.  Assign  on  previous 
day  a  general  review 
of  Great  Britian  as 
to  surface,  climate, 
industries  and  popu- 
lation. 


Subject  matter. 
Preparation. 

1.  Materials  used. 

(a)  Map  showing 
location  of  Great 
Britain,  climate,  etc. 

(b)  Pictures  of 
great  mining  and 
manufacturing    cen- 
ters —  her  harbors, 
canals,  etc. 

(c)  Kipling's  ' Re- 
cessional ". 

2.  Special  points  in  re- 
view. 

(a)  Great  Britain  is 
an  island  empire,  lo- 
cated Northwest  of 
Europe,  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  It  lies 
between  two  great 
continents,  and  has 
water  communica- 
tions with  all. 
(b)  Her  climate  is 
mild,  and  her  num- 
erous ports  are  free 


2.  Have  a  student  put 
•  on  the  blackboard 
an  outline  map  of 
Great  Britian,  show- 
ing coal  and  iron 
fields,  ports,  and 
rivers. 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED 


189 


from  ice  all  the  year 
round. 

(c)  Her  great  coal 
and  iron  mines  are 
within  easy  shipping 
distance  of  all  ports. 

(d)  Although   her 
population  numbers 
45,000,000  people, 
Great  Britian  raises 
little  food  stuff. 

(e)  As  a  manufac- 
turing   nation,    she 
leads  the  world. 

(f)  Her    colonies 
are  to  be  found  all 
over  the  world. 

(g)  Her    navy    is 
twice  as   strong  as 
that    of    any    other 
nation. 


3.  Use  world  map  also. 

4.  Pivotal  questions  to 
develop  the  prepara- 
tion. 

(a)  What  do  you 
consider  the  most 
significant    features 
about  the  location  of 
Great  Britian? 

(b)  What  effect 
does  the  climate  of 
Great  Britian  have 
upon   the   condition 
of  her  ports,  rivers, 
and  canals! 


190         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


(c)  Study  the  map, 

and  see  if  you  can 

pick    out    the    most 

significant  fact 

about  the  location  of 

coal  and  iron  fields. 

(d)  Compare    Great 
Britain's  rank  as  a 
food   producer   with 
her  rank  as  a  manu- 
facturing nation.  Ac- 
count for  the  differ- 
ence. 

(e)  Ask  the  most  im- 
portant thought  ques- 
tion you  can  about 
the     population     of 
Great  Britain. 

(f)  What    relation- 
ship do  you  think  ex- 
ists   between    Great 
Britain's    navy    and 
her  colonies? 

Throughout  the 
preparation,  oppor- 
tunity is  given  for 
discussion  on  part  of 
the  class. 

(g)  Have  a  student 
read    "The    Eeces- 
sional". 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED 


191 


Presentation    or    main 
body  of  the  lesson. 

1.  Text:    Tarr   &   Mc- 
Mur  ray's        Ge- 
ography.,      pages 
275-6. 

2.  References: 
Encyclopedia  Britan- 
ica  Volume  27,  pages 
600-604; 

Current  Magazines: 

Atlantic    Monthly  — 

May,  1914,  pages  608, 

609; 

Literary      Digest  — 

February,  1914,  page 

352; 

3.  Other  Materials: 
Trade  route  map  of 
the  world. 

Railroad    Map    of 
England,  Europe  and 
the  United  States. 
Blackboard  maps. 
Pictures. 

4.  Leading  points  to  be 
made  in  class. 

(a)  Because  of  her 
location  between  two 
great  continents 


Presentation— or    main 
body  of  the  lesson. 

1.   Have  trade  route 
maps  on  display. 


2.  The  references  men- 
tioned in  subject 
matter  will  be  as- 
signed to  individual 
pupils  for  reports. 


3.  The  student  will  be 
asked  some  problems 
in  regard  to  British 
commerce  which  they 
consider  important. 


4.   Pivotal  questions: 
(a)    What    do    you 
consider  would  be  a 
good  problem  for  us 
to  attempt  to   solve 


192 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


Great  Britain  natur- 
ally becomes  a  link 
in  trade. 

(b)  Because  her  ports 
are  always  open, 
trade  is  never  inter- 
rupted   by    climatic 
conditions  (except 
heavy  fogs). 

(c)  Surrounded   by 
water,  with  no  point 
more   than   seventy- 
five  miles  from  the 
coast,  her  people 
have  always  been 
natural  sailors. 

(d)  In  past  centuries, 
because  of  a  bold  and 
adventurous     spirit, 
and  a   desire  to  in- 
crease    commerce, 
Englishmen      have 
pushed  into  all  parts 
of  the  world  and  es- 
tablished colonies. 

(e)  The    soil,    not 
yielding      enough 
food  stuff  and  raw 
material   of  various 
kinds, but  rich  in  coal 
and  iron,  the  British 
people   have   turned 
to  manufacturing,  ex- 


regarding  British 
commerce? 

(b)  In    what    way 
does  Great  Britain's 
location   affect   her 
commercial    import- 
ance? 

(c)  Discuss  the  ad- 
vantages offered  by 
her  open  harbors. 

(d)  How  do  you  ac- 
count   for   the   bold 
adventurous  spirit  <  f 
English  people?  How 
would  this  spirit  af- 
fect their  commercial 
life? 

(e)  What    relation- 
ships  exist   between 
Great    Britain    and 
her  colonies? 

(f)  Great     Britain 
has     rather    unpro- 
ductive soil,  rich  coal 
and  iron  mines,  good 
water     routes,     and 
colonies  rich  in  raw 
materials.     (Make  a 
diagram  of  this  on 
blackboard.)  To  what 
industries    did    her 
people   naturarlly 
turn!    Wky? 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED 


193 


changing  manufac- 
tured articles  for 
raw  materials. 

(f)  This   trade   has 
been    stimulated    by 
earnest  protection  on 
the  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment.    Wherever 
the  British  merchant- 
man goes — he  has  the 
protection    of    the 
British  navy.     Even 
in    this    great    war 
(1916)    (which  many 
claim  is  largely  com- 
mercial),   British 
trade    is    but    little 
disturbed,    except 
with  her  enemies. 

(g)  Kivers,  harbors, 
canals,  railroads  and 
r.pads  are  given  spe- 
cial   attention.     Ev- 
erything   is     done 
which   will    tend   to 
stimulate  commercial 
activity  (at  least  it  is 
attempted). 

(h)  To-day,  British 
merchants  lead  the 
world  in  trade,  and 
Great  Britain  has 
long  been  recognized 


(g)  What  has  Great 
Britain  done  to  stim- 
ulate trade? 
(h)  Compare  Eng- 
land's rank  in  the 
commercial  world 
with  her  rank  as  a 
civilized  nation, 
(i)  Without  this  com- 
mercial development, 
what  might  Great 
Britain's  rank  be  to- 
day? 

(j)  Looking  at  your 
world  map  —  select 
some  great  nation 
which  presents  the 
most  striking  con- 
trast to  Great  Brit- 
ain. (It  is  assumed 
that  Russia  ulti- 
mately be  selected.) 
(k)  Account  for 
these  great  differ- 
ences in  commerce, 
industry  and  civiliza- 
tion. 

(1)  Study  the  map  of 
the  United  States  of 
America.  What  rea- 
son have  we  for  be- 
lieving that  the 
United  States  will 


194 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


as  one  of  the  most 
enlightened  and  civ- 
ilized of  nations. 
Without  her  com- 
mercial life,  England 
would  be  an  insignif- 
icant country,  in- 
stead of  the  center  of 
the  civilized  world. 
For  with  the  goods 
she  buys  come  ideas, 
manners,  customs 
and  ideals  from  other 
people. 

(I)  In  comparing 
Great  Britain  and 
Eussia,  we  find  that 
though  much  richer 
in  natural  resources, 
Eussia 's  commerce  is 
insignificant,  just  as 
her  ports  are  fewer, 
her  internal  means 
o  f  transportation 
poorer  by  far,  and 
her  people  as  a  whole 
ignorant  and  provin- 
cial. 

(j)  On  the  other 
hand,  is  the  United 
States  of  America. 
Located  between  Eu- 
rope, Asia  and  South 


eventually  excel 
Great  Britain  com- 
mercially, and  other- 
wise? 

It  is  assumed  that 
many  questions  will 
be  asked  by  the  class ; 
the  teacher,  by  the 
aid  of  these  big,  in- 
clusive  questions, 
merely  guiding  the 
students  toward  log- 
ical and  definite  con- 
clusions. 

(m)  Why  are  we  jus- 
tified in  saying  that 
commerce  means 
wealth  and  progress  1 
(n)  What  are  the 
main  conditions 
which  affect  com- 
merce? 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  195 


America,  with  thou- 
sands of  miles  of 
coast  line,  rich  in 
natural  resources, 
with  fine  rivers,  nu- 
m  e  r  o  u  s  railroads, 
she  is  fast  assuming 
a  leading  place  in 
commerce.  Her  peo- 
ple are  rich,  her  uni- 
versities and  schools 
prosper.  There  is  a 
marked  tendency 
toward  broad  mind- 
edness,  as  shown  by 
her  attitude  during 
the  war. 

5.  Great  truths  to  be 
emphasized : 
(a)  It  is  safe  to  con- 
clude that  commer- 
c  i  a  1  development 
means  increased 
wealth  and  progress 
along  all  lines,  be- 
cause : 

(1)  It  brings  people 
into  contact  with  one 
another,  and  causes 
circulation    of    new 
ideas,     ideals     and 
knowledge. 

(2)  A  non-commer- 


196 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


No.  4. 
lesson  Plan 


cial  nation  is  almost 
always   of  an   igno- 
rant, bigoted,  unpro- 
gressive  type. 
Conclusion. 

The  application 
or  using  of  the  knowl- 
edge gained. 

1.  What  is  true  about 
commerce  of  nations 
is  also  true  of  state 
or    community   com- 
merce. 

2.  The  County  of  Den- 
ton,  Texas,  if  it  is  to 
be    progressive    and 
wide   awake,   must 
have    good    roads, 
well   cultivated   soil, 
and  active   commer- 
cial life. 


Plan 


Conclusion. 

Let  us  assume  that  we 
are  the  voters  in  the 
County  of  Denton.  We 
want  our  county  to  be 
progressive,  wide 
awake,  and  wealthy. 

What  conditions  will 
we  work  to  establish? 

Why  is  it  worth  while 
for  the  State  of  Texas 
to  spend  so  much  money 
on  the  port  of  Galves- 
ton? 

If  the  building  of  a 
good  road  in  Denton 
County  would  increase 
your  taxes,  would  you 
vote  for  it? 

Why  7 

No.  4. 


LESSON  UNIT  PLAN  IN  READING 
GRADE  I DATE 

The  Gingerbread  Boy 

(From  the  Training  School  of  the  North  Texas 
State  Normal  College.) 

(Mrs.  Cora  Martin.) 
Teacher's  Aim. 
Through  interest  developed  in  the   story,  to 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED 


197 


teach  the  new  words  which  it  contains,  thereby 
increasing  the  child's  reading  vocabulary. 
Pupils'  Problem. 

To  recognize  the  new  words  in  order  to  be  able 
to  read  the  story. 


Subject  matter 

1.    Introduction. 

Conversation  about 
cakes  cut  in  various 
shapes,  which  the 
children  have  seen  or 
have  had  made  for 
them. 


2.   Presentation. 

(a)  The  story  of  the 
Gingerbread  Boy. 

(b)  Dramatization. 
A  comparison  of  the 
different  characters. 


Method. 

1.  Introduction. 

Did  your  mother 
ever  make  you  any 
little  cakes  and  cut 
them  out  like  cats, 
dogs,  or  any  other 
animals?  Tell  us 
about  them.  Perhaps 
you  have  had  some 
cut  in  the  shape  of  a 
little  boy.  (Lead  the 
children  to  express 
themselves  freely.) 
I  know  a  story  about 
a  little  gingerbread 
boy — such  a  funny 
little  boy  cut  out  of 
gingerbread  dough ! 
(Some  child  will  ask 
for  it.) 

2.  Presentation. 

(a)  Tell  the  story  in 
as   interesting  man- 
ner as  possible. 
Pivotal  questions: 
Do  you  like   it? 


198 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


A  comparison  of  the 
different  ideas, 
(c)  Beading. 
Material  used  in  the 
printed  story  on  a 
chart  for  the  first 
lesson,  then  sen- 
tences, phrases  and 
words  contained  in 
the  story  are  printed 
on  cards,  and  these 
are  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  chart. 


What   part   do   yon 
like   best?   Why   do 
you    like    that    part 
best? 

(b)  Could    you    do 
as    the    gingerbread 
boy  did?     Show  us! 
Perhaps    some    one 
can  show  us  how  the 
old  woman  did,  and 
tell  us  just  what  she 
said.    (Call  for  ideas 
as  to  the  actions  of 
different   characters. 
Discuss  these,  and  let 
the    children    decide 
on    the    best    ones.) 
Would   you   like    to 
show  how  these  char- 
acters  acted  all  to- 
gether,  just   as   the 
story  gives  it?    (Let 
the   setting  and  the 
action   be   given   by 
the    children.    Occa- 
sional  suggestions 
may  be  necessary  to 
preserve      organiza- 
tion. ) 

(c)  Here  is  a  chart 
which  has  this  story 
printed  on  it.   If  you 
could   only   read  it, 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED 


199 


3.   Application. 

Cards    with    sen- 
tences,   phrases    or 
w  or  d  s     from    the 
story. 


you  might  give  moth- 
er a  nice  surprise 
some  day  by  asking 
her  to  come  to  school 
to  hear  you  read  a 
story.  Why,  yes,  of 
course,  we  can  learn 
to  read  it!  Would 
you  like  to  begin? 
The  story  is  then 
read  by  the  class,  the 
teacher  pointing  to 
the  words  as  they 
read,  being  careful  to 
"swing  it  along"  to 
get  correct  expres- 
sion, and  not  stop  the 
pointer  at  each  word. 
Volunteers  are  then 
asked  to  read  the 
first  sentence,  the 
next,  and  so  on 
through  the  story. 
After  this  phrases 
are  pointed  out,  and 
finally  single  words. 

3.   Application. 

At  t  h  e  beginning  o  f 
the  next  lesson  on 
this  subject,  the 
cards  are  given  the 
children,  and  they 


200 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


lies  son  Plan 
No.  5. 


New     combinations         discover    they    are 

are  made  from  phrases         parts    of    the    chart 

contained  in  story         story.  They  then 

These  are  printed  on         match   them   with 

cards.  sentences,       phrases 

and  words  on  the 
chart.  They  then  ar- 
range their  cards  ac- 
cording to  sequences, 
and  read  the  story 
from  them. 

Later,  new  combi- 
nations are  made, 
and  the  sentences 
read,  which  is  a  final 
test  of  the  child's 
power  to  use  the 
knowledge  gained. 

Plan  No.  5. 

TEXT:  Elson's  Grammar  School  Reader—Book 

Four. 

SELECTION:   The  Voyage— by  Irving 
Beginning  on  page  132,  from  beginning  of  selec- 
tion to  line  24  on  page  135,  or  eight  paragraphs. 
The  two  stanzas  at  the  beginning  were  read,  but 
not  counted  in  the  eight  paragraphs. 

(From  Illinois  State  Normal  University) 
Teacher's  Purpose. 

1.  To  lead  the  pupils  to  appreciate  the  inci- 
dents of  the  voyage,  which  affected  Irving ; 
how  they  affected  him ;  and  in  what  man- 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  201 

ner  these  experiences  prepared  him  for 
the  land  trip. 

2.  To  improve  the  pupils'  control  of  the  me- 

chanics through  drill  exercises. 

3.  To  prepare  the  pupils  through  the  realiza- 

tion of  1  and  2  to  read  well. 
Unit  of  Instruction. 

The  Voyage,  by  Irving. 
Organisation  of  Subject  Matter. 

I.    A  sea  voyage  as  a  preparation  for  visiting 

a  strange  continent. 

1.  Absence  of  worldly  scenes. 

2.  Vast  space  of  waters. 

3.  Vacancy. 

II.    Contrast  of  land  and  sea  trip. 

1.  Land  trip. 

(a)  Continuity  of  scenery. 

(b)  Succession  of  persons  and  in- 
cidents. 

(c)  "A  lengthening  chain. " 

(d)  Trace  it  link  by  link. 

2.  Voyage. 

(a)  Consciousness    of    being    cast 
loose  from  settled  life. 

(b)  Sent    adrift    upon    a    doubtful 
world. 

(c)  Uncertainty  of  return. 

III.  The  author's  own  feeling. 

1.  Closed  one  volume  of  the  world. 

2.  Changes  might  take  place. 

IV.  The  author  spent  time  meditating. 

1.  Musing  on  summer  sea. 

2.  Gazing  on  golden  clouds. 


202  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

3.  Watching  undulating  billows. 

4.  Watching  animals  at  sea. 

5.  Keflecting  on  all  he  had  read. 

V.    The  sight  of  a  distant  ship. 

VI.     The  sight  of  wreckage. 

1.  Evidences  of  loss  of  life. 

2.  Thoughts  that  came  to  his  mind. 

Pupil's  Problem. 

To  solve  the  problems  of  the  assignment. 

Assignment.    Page  132.    The  Voyage. 

Pronounce  and  define  these  words:  Prep- 
arative, imperceptibility,  continuity,  inter- 
poses, palpable,  precarious,  reveries,  un- 
dulating, conjure. 

How  does  a  sea  voyage  prepare  one  for  a 
visit  to  a  strange  place?  Name  three  such 
conditions. 

In  the  contrast  of  land  and  sea  trips,  name 
three  conditions  in  the  land  trip  not  in  the 
voyage,  and  three  in  the  voyage  not  in  the 
land. 

How  did  the  author  feel  when  the  last 
traces  of  land  faded  from  his  sight? 
Name  some  ways  the  author  spent  his 
time  on  board? 

How  did  the  sight  of  a  distant  ship  affect 
him? 

Why  do  you  think  he  saw  the  usefulness 
of  the  ship  more  vividly  than  ever? 
What  thoughts  came  to  him  when  he  saw 
the  wreckage? 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  203 

Preparation. 

Experiences  of  pupils  in  either  land  or  sea 
trips  or  both. 

A  teacher's  year  book  of  lesson  plans,  modeled 
after  this  standard,  is  of  incalculable  value  to  him 
in  his  instruction,  and  of  much  interest  to  the 
class  as  a  general  summary  of  its  work  through- 
out  the  course.  The  impossibility  of  making  ofplan»- 
daily  lesson  plans  of  such  elaborate  detail  as 
those  given  here  is  obvious.  The  necessity  of 
having  them  made,  however,  is  felt  as  not  less 
imperative.  The  solution  of  the  difficulty  can  be 
met  only  by  the  teacher's  having  his  lesson  plans 
for  a  period  of  a  week,  a  month,  or  a  term  already 
developed.  In  this  way,  the  preparation  needed 
daily  would  be  only  a  review  of  the  lesson  plan 
in  which  needed  adjustments  could  be  made.  It 
would  greatly  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  teach- 
ers, and  the  success  of  their  work,  if  school  boards 
and  superintendents  would  consider  the  necessity 
of  this  step  in  the  teacher's  preparation,  and  an- 
nounce at  the  time  of  his  election  his  specific 
assignment  of  work. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  LESSON  CONTINUED 

III.      THE  LESSON  RECITATION 

The  third  stage  in  the  development  of  the  Les- 
son, the  Lesson  Becitation,  is  probably  of  more 
general  interest  than  either  the  Lesson  Assign- 
ment or  the  Lesson  Preparation. 

The  Recitation. — In  its  original  meaning,  the 
term  recitation  signifies  simply  "the  act  of  say- 
ing  again. "  The  literal  definition  of  the  word 
may  explain  in  some  measure  the  pernicious  cus- 
tom that  has  been  so  tenaciously  fastened  upon 
the  teacher  and  student  in  this  most  important 
school  exercise.  This  interpretation  of  the  reci- 
tation process  makes  no  provision  for  the  exercise 
of  any  mental  activity  save  that  of  memory;  so 
interpreted,  a  recitation  consists  merely  of  having 
students  mechanically  repeat  the  words,  verbatim, 
from  the  text  book.  To  judge  a  student  by  his 
ability  to  repeat  the  thoughts  of  the  text,  as  a  pure 
memory  exercise,  is  not  far  removed  from  the 
old  understanding  of  the  recitation  idea.  It  is 
possible  for  a  student  to  state  and  give  the  analy- 
sis of  problems  in  arithmetic,  of  sentences  in 
grammar,  and  of  causes  and  effects  in  history, 
and  for  the  act  to  be  still  a  mere  memory  process. 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  205 

The  evil  effects  resulting  from  such  exercises 
have  prompted  a  persistent  search  for  a  specific 
remedy.  As  a  result,  there  has  been  given  in  the 
last  two  decades  more  real  study,  especially  by 
teachers,  to  this  phase  of  the  Lesson  problem 
than  probably  to  both  of  the  others  combined.  The 
discoveries  have  been  most  gratifying  and  the 
progress  no  less  marked  than  that  made  in  other 
fields  of  research.  A  new  meaning  has  been 
given  to  the  word,  and  a  wider  scope  to  the  pro- 
cess. "  The  Kecitation"  no  longer  signifies  to  the 
student  merely  "saying  again"  dull  facts  culled 
from  books,  but  it  suggests  opportunity  for  inter- 
change of  ideas  and  the  results  of  research." 

The  recitation  period  is  no  longer  considered 
merely  a  testing  period,  but  is  in  reality  what  it 
has  been  called — a  "thinking  period". 

The  Purposes  of  the  Recitation. — One  of  the  most 
important  purposes  of  the  recitation  is  suggested 
by  this  change  of  view — that  of  stimulating  the 
self  activity  of  the  student,  the  power  of  inde- 
pendent  research,  and  a  keen  critical  insight  into  tton 
new  truths.  No  recitation  is  complete  that  fails 
in  establishing  in  the  student  such  habits  of 
thought. 

A  second  purpose  of  the  Eecitation  is  the  de- 
velopment of  the  student's  ability  to  "see"  and 
"know"  or  to  "perceive  relations  and  draw  con- 
clusions." It  is  expected  of  every  student  that 
he  be  able  to  meet  the  "knowledge  test"  in  the  TO  develop 
fullest  sense.  The  ability  to  quote  formulas,  to 
recite  data,  or  to  explain  the  mysteries  of  science 
merely  suggest  skill  in  training — the  gathering  of 


206 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


To  develop 
the  social 

instincts. 


Character. 


Summary  of 
the  purposes 
of  the  recita- 
tion. 


knowledge  material,  an  abundant  supply  of  in- 
formation. To  complete  the  test,  he  must  be  able 
to  reach  a  conclusion.  The  student  of  the  pres- 
ent must  answer  the  question,  What  do  you  think? 

A  third  purpose  of  the  Eecitation  is  that  of 
training  the  student  into  a  proper  appreciation  of 
the  relation  which  should  exist  between  himself 
and  his  fellows.  No  better  opportunity  is  af- 
forded for  developing  a  wholesome  respect  for  the 
opinions  of  others,  or  a  due  consideration  for  their 
rights.  Such  characteristics  as  courtesy  and 
kindness  inevitably  follow  such  training  and  be- 
come established  habits  in  the  student.  The  real 
aim  of  the  Recitation,  then,  is  the  development  of 
character  through  the  establishment  of  correct 
habits  of  thought  and  feeling,  purpose  and  action. 

More  specifically  stated,  the  various  purposes  of 
the  recitation  may  be  outlined  as  follows : 

1.  To  test  the  knowledge  of  the  student,  that 
is,  to  ascertain  whether  he  does  or  does  not  know 
the  subject. 

2.  To  correct  the  errors  of  the  student,  and  ex- 
plain the  difficulties  which  he  has  met. 

3.  To   cultivate   skill  in   original  expression 
through    increased   vocabulary   and   fluency    of 
speech. 

4.  To  stimulate  interest  in  study  through  di- 
rect contact  with  teacher  and  fellow  students. 

5.  To  cultivate  habits  of  thought  through  a 
knowledge  of  how  to  study. 

6.  To  develop  in  the  student  individuality  and 
self  reliance  through  application  of  the  general 
truths  of  the  lesson. 


THE  LESSOR  CONTINUED  207 

The  Rules  of  the  Recitation.— In  order  that  all 
the  purposes  of  the  Eecitation  may  be  fulfilled, 
proper  conditions  of  study  are  essential;  and  to 
obtain  these  conditions,  there  are  certain  rules 
which  must  be  observed,  most  of  which  relate  to 
the  problem  of  how  to  arouse  interest  and  hold 
attention.  Solving  the  problem  of  attention  prac- 
tically  ends  the  difficulty.  Attention  is  the  focal 
point  of  mental  activity.  It  is  said  to  be  the  very 
' '  heart  of  consciousness ' '.  It  is  the  indispensable 
attitude  of  mind  necessary  to  the  reception  of 
ideas.  It  is  safe  to  say,  when  there  is  no  at- 
tention  there  is  no  new  knowledge  gained.  At-  necessary, 
tention  is  prerequisite  to  interest,  and  interest  fos- 
ters attention.  They  are  complementary  atti- 
tudes of  the  mind.  The  necessity  of  the  case  de-  Attention 
termines  the  degree  of  interest,  and  interest  SSSit!7 
holds  the  attention.  The  kind  of  attention  which 
a  student  can  give  to  a  subject  indicates  some- 
thing of  his  intellectuality.  Power  to  give  close 
individual  attention  is  a  characteristic  of  a  trained 
mind,  while  listless,  passive  attention  indicates 
dreamy  indecision  and  lack  of  mental  vigor. 

The  general  rule  for  the  recitation  should  be: 
Every  student  attentive  to  the  matter  in  hand. 
To  secure  such  attention  on  the  part  of  the  class, 
the  following  rules  aid  materially: 

Conduct  the  lesson  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire 
class.  If  a  question  is  asked  either  by  a  student 
or  teacher,  it  should  be  addressed  to  the  class  as 
a  whole,  and  then  a  particular  student  designated 
to  answer  the  question.  When  a  student  has  been 
designated,  the  question  belongs  to  him  as  a  right, 


208 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Formalities 
of  the  recita. 

tion. 


Original  Il- 
lustrations 
should  "be 
required. 


Taking-  and 
making1  notes 
during-  recita- 
tion, a  waste 
of  time. 


until  he  has  had  fair  opportunity  of  answering 
uninterrupted  by  teacher  or  other  student.  All 
explanations  of  problems,  whether  at  the  board 
or  at  the  seat,  all  discussions  of  maps  or  themes, 
should  be  given  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire  class, 
and  not  for  the  teacher. 

Require  students  when  reciting  to  rise  and  ad- 
dress the  class.  Incoherent  answers  or  exact  rep- 
etitions of  facts  from  the  text  book  destroy  atten- 
tion and  cultivate  listless  inactivity.  The  effect 
on  the  student  reciting  is  equally  disastrous.  The 
student  should  be  expected  to  contribute  to  the 
interest,  alertness,  and  enthusiasm  of  the  class 
by  an  energetic  discussion  of  some  vital  point. 

Teach  the  student  to  give  original  illustrations 
of  the  lesson,  instead  of  repeating  those  in  the 
text.  Experience  shows  that  students  rarely,  if 
ever,  get  beyond  memorizing  the  illustration 
stated  in  the  text,  and  repeating  it  often  verbatim. 
Such  practice  is  not  tolerated  in  our  daily  lives, 
where  an  apology  is  usually  offered  for  the  repe- 
tition of  a  story,  even  though  it  is  apt  and  full 
of  humor. 

Allow  no  promiscuous  note-taking  during  the 
recitation.  Students  should  be  trained  to  "pay 
attention  and  listen,"  and  one  can  give  attention 
to  only  one  thing  at  a  time.  The  practice  of  note- 
taking  has  been  much  abused,  and  there  is  a  tend- 
ency among  students  to  rely  too  much  on  their 
note-books.  Teachers  often  spend  entire  recita- 
tion periods  dictating  notes  which  the  students  are 
required  to  copy. 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  209 

This  is  a  waste  of  time  and  energy,  both  for  the 
teacher  and  the  student,  and  it  has  no  value  except 
as  an  exercise  in  dictation. 

Use  abundant  illustrations.  The  quantity  of 
suitable  material  on  every  hand  makes  it  possible 
to  connect  the  new  or  unknown  facts  with  the  fa- 
miliar and  the  known.  The  use  of  illustrations 
suggests  the  variety  of  appreciation  of  the  ideas 
presented,  and  thus  attracts  and  holds  the 
attention. 

Introduce  something  new  or  different  to  give 
variety  to  the  work.  Dull  monotony  is  destructive 
to  mental  activity.  Children  in  poorly  taught  kin- 
dergarten schools  are  usually  entertained  and 
amused,  rather  than  trained  and  instructed.  The 
result  is  a  restless  inattentive  child  wholly  incap- 
able of  concentrating  his  mind  upon  one  thing  for 
any  length  of  time. 

Forms  of  the  Recitation.— The  terms  "  Forms  Forms  of 
of  the  Recitation"  and  "Methods  of  the  Recita-  recitation- 
tion"  should  be  understood.  The  "Forms  of  the 
Recitation"  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  it 
may  be  conducted.  There  are  two  principal 
forms,  the  oral  and  the  written.  "The  Method 
of  the  Recitation"  means  simply  the  mode  of  pro- 
cedure. There  are  three  principal  methods,  the 
lecture  method,  the  interrogation  method,  and  the 
developing  or  conversational  method.  The  na- 
ture of  the  subject  and  the  lesson  aims  determine 
to  some  extent  the  form  of  the  recitation.  In 
mathematics  and  science,  the  recitation  is  for  the 


210 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Each  form 
has  value. 


The  written 
recitation. 


HaTjit  Of 
cramming-  for 
written 
work  vicious. 


Values  of 
written  work. 


In  writing1 
the  student 
learns  to  nse 
logical  order. 


most  part  conducted  in  written  form,  while  the 
recitation  in  history  and  literature  is  usually  con- 
ducted orally. 

There  are  some  definite  lesson  values  in  each 
form  of  the  recitation.  Each  gives  excellent 
training  to  the  student  in  self  expression,  easy 
self  control,  and  self  direction.  Both  forms  have 
a  place  in  each  subject  of  the  entire  course  and 
should  be  employed. 

There  has  been  developed  among  teachers  and 
students  the  idea  that  the  written  recitation  in 
some  way  exceeds  in  importance  the  oral  recita- 
tion. The  result  is  seen  in  the  pernicious  habit  of 
cramming,  which  has  practically  destroyed  the 
real  value  of  written  work.  This  view  on  the  part 
of  the  student  is  caused  partly  perhaps  by  the 
teacher's  placing  undue  emphasis  on  the  value  of 
grades  made  on  the  written  work.  In  the  written 
recitation,  the  student  develops  expression 
through  written  form.  He  learns  to  think  while 
using  his  pen  and  to  use  it  with  ease.  Eapidity 
and  clearness,  the  style  of  expression,  the  gram- 
matical form  of  his  sentences,  the  correct  use  of 
terms  and  the  spelling  of  words,  all  enter  as  ele- 
ments into  the  written  recitation,  whether  it  be  in 
English  or  other  subject. 

An  important  result  of  written  work  is  that  it 
quickens  the  mental  processes  of  the  student.  He 
learns  to  think  quickly,  and  to  express  himself 
more  readily  on  paper.  He  is  forced  to  omit  the 
trite  text  book  illustrations,  to  organize  his  ma- 
terial in  logical  sequence,  and  to  think  in  logical 
order. 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  211 

The  written  recitation  also  furnishes  the  stu- 
dent an  opportunity  for  the  discussion  of  larger 
thought  units  as  a  whole  instead  of  confining  him 
to  the  discussion  of  details  characteristic  of  the 
oral  recitations.  It  is  possible  for  one  to  collect 
numerous  details  and  to  be  conversant  with  them, 
and  still  have  little  knowledge  of  the  work  as  a 
whole.  Another  advantage  of  the  written  lesson 
is  that  each  student  is  given  opportunity  on  the 
lesson  as  a  whole. 

With  these  definite  purposes  kept  in  view,  the 
written  lesson  furnishes  an  excellent  basis  for  the 
student's  own  estimation  of  his  progress.     The  opportunity 
comparison  of  each  lesson  with  the  one  preceding  ' 

marks  the  degree  of  progress.  For  this  reason, 
all  written  work,  with  the  date  specified,  should 
be  preserved  either  by  the  teacher  or  by  the  stu- 
dent, from  which  an  estimate  may  be  made  when 
desired. 

Through  the  oral  recitation  the  student  should 
develop  skill  both  in  listening  and  in  oral  expres-  recitation, 
sion.  Conversation  is  said  to  be  a  lost  art.  If 
this  be  true,  the  school  has  had  no  small  part  in 
bringing  about  this  result.  The  practice  of  train- 
ing students  to  wait  till  called  upon  by  the  teacher 
to  give  any  expression  of  thought  has  a  tendency 
to  destroy  spontaneity  and  initiative,  and  to  en- 
gender a  passive,  receptive  attitude  of  mind. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  be  able  to  enter 
into  the  discussion  of  the  lesson  problem,  and  con- 
tribute something  new  to  what  has  already  been 
given,  the  ear  must  be  trained  to  catch  ideas  as  Training  to 
they  are  given,  the  memory  to  retain  and  the  judg- 


212 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Training-  to 
speak  in 
public. 


Test  of 
efficiency. 


Methods  of 
the  recita- 
tion. 


ment  to  weigh  and  consider  them.  Only  one  of 
three  explanations  can  be  given  for  a  student's 
repeating  facts  or  statements  which  have  already 
been  given  during  the  recitation.  He  has  failed 
to  give  attention,  his  memory  is  poor,  or  his  gen- 
eral conception  of  the  problem  vague. 

During  the  oral  recitation  a  student  is  brought 
face  to  face  with  his  teacher  and  fellow  students, 
and  through  spirited  exchange  of  ideas  is  stimu- 
lated and  encourarged  to  believe  in  his  own 
powers  "to  be"  and  "to  do'.. 

The  oral  recitation  cultivates  the  ability  to 
think  and  speak  in  public.  As  it  is  commonly  con- 
ducted, this  advantage  of  the  oral  recitation  is 
practically  lost,  as  the  student  usually  addresses 
the  "answer"  to  the  teacher,  often  speaking  too 
low  even  to  be  heard  distinctly  by  him.  Students 
should  rise  and  address  to  the  class  whatever  they 
have  to  contribute  to  the  lesson  recitation. 

Ease  both  in  action  and  thought  results 
from  continued  practice.  The  student  by  practice 
forms  habits  of  thinking  logically  and  clearly,  and 
speaking  effectively  in  public. 

The  test  of  efficiency  is  not  only  in  being  able 
to  see,  know,  and  do  well,  but  also  in  being  able 
to  do  quickly.  Many  men  can  give  good  counsel 
if  long  time  is  allowed  to  weigh  and  consider. 
The  well  educated  man  is  one  who  can  command 
promptly  and  accurately  any  desired  information, 
and  apply  it  efficaciously. 

The  Methods  of  the  Recitation. — No  other  prob- 
lem in  education  has  received  more  study  than 
Methods  of  the  Becitation.  To  the  teacher  it  is  a 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  213 

matter  of  constant  difficulty  and  concern  how  to 
study,  plan,  and  present  the  subject  matter  to  the 
student.  Some  one  has  said  that  "the  greatest 
discovery  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  the  child ". 
The  careful  study  of  child  nature,  of  appercep- 
tion, of  inductive  and  deductive  processes  in 
learning  all  have  made  him  the  pivotal  figure 
around  which  all  the  problems  of  education 
revolve. 

Teachers  should  know  something  of  the  Meth- 
ods of  the  Kecitation  which  have  characterized 
the  teaching  of  the  past.  A  knowledge  of  past 
methods  enables  him  to  better  understand  modern 
methods  of  instruction. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  early  mode  of  the 
recitation,  in  which  the  "instructor"  taught  only 
one  student.  This  was  commonly  practiced  among 
the  Greeks  and  Eomans.  The  class  group  idea, 
or  the  simultaneous  method,  followed  the  indi- 
vidual mode  of  recitation. 

Originally  the  "instructor"  was  a  learned 
doctor  who  taught  the  "scholars".  There  were 
then  few  libraries  and  books,  and  all  "learning" 
was  transmitted  by  word  of  mouth.  Thus  the 
name  "lecture"  became  attached  to  this  method 
of  the  recitation.. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  though  giving  to  the  stu- 
dent an  opportunity  of  learning  from  the  best  The  Iecture 
authorities,  the  "lecture  method"  violates  the  law  5nethod- 
of  self  activity  by  regarding  the  student  as  a 
passive  recipient,  and  disregarding  the  principle 
of  apperception;  that  is  the  use  of  past  experi- 
ences in  developing  new  truths. 


214 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  method 

of  interroga- 
tion. 


The  tmestion 
method. 

The  topic 
method. 


The  art  of 
questioning1.. 


The  introduction  of  the  law  of  self -activity  into 
the  method  of  instruction,  developed  the  Method 
of  Interrogation.  It  is  intended  by  this  plan  to 
bring  the  students  into  some  definite  active  rela- 
tionship to  one  another  in  the  recitation  period. 
This  method  of  instruction  has  been  variously  in- 
terpreted and  applied.  The  "Socratic  Method", 
so  called  from  the  great  Greek  philosopher,  Socra- 
tes, who  was  an  "  educator "  rather  than  an  in- 
structor", is  accepted  as  the  most  perfect  method 
of  interrogation,  as  he  employed  in  his  method 
the  principle  of  apperception.  He  taught  that 
education  was  a  process  of  "leading  out"  and 
thus  of  developing  the  activities  of  the  learner 
rather  than  a  process  of  "pouring  in"  and  filling 
a  void.  His  plan  was  to  begin  with  what  the  stu- 
dent knew,  and  through  questioning,  to  lead  him 
to  the  truths  he  did  not  know. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  method  of  interro- 
gation, popularly  known  as  the  Question  andAn- 
swer  Method  and  the  Topic  Method.  In  each  of 
these,  it  is  the  practice  of  the  teacher  to  suggest 
the  question  or  topic,  and  for  the  student  to  give 
the  answer,  either  directly  or  through  discussion. 
The  two  methods  differ  very  little  except  in  the 
time  given  to  the  student  for  giving  his  answer  or 
for  developing  the  topic. 

Questioning  is  a  difficult  art.  Many  teachers 
resort  to  specific  plans  or  devices  for  calling  on 
the  student.  Some  call  the  students  in  alphabet- 
ical order,  others  use  modifications  of  this  method 
with  a  card  system  for  the  class.  When  this 
method  is  used,  the  student  soon  learns  the  order 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  215 

in  which  his  turn  comes  to  recite,  and  he  can  pre- 
pare for  the  very  day  and  often  for  the  specific 
paragraph  or  problem  upon  which  he  will  be  re- 
quired to  recite.  This  method  is  a  direct  violation 
of  the  principle  that  each  student  should  feel  per- 
sonally responsible  for  all  class  work.  It  disre- 
gards the  value  of  self  activity  and  leaves  the  stu- 
dent dependent  upon  the  teacher. 

Strong  pivotal  questions  are  necessary  in  every  Nature  of 
recitation.  They  are  a  test  of  one 's  skill,  whether  question*, 
he  be  student  or  teacher.  The  questions  are  of 
three  classes — those  which  test  the  knowledge  of 
the  student,  and  are  introduced  by  who,  what, 
and  where;  those  which  test  the  understanding  of 
the  student,  and  are  asked  by  how,  and  why,  prove, 
etc.;  and  those  which  test  the  feeling  and  will, 
the  power  to  feel  and  the  power  to  do.  Each 
form  of  question,  when  well  directed  by  the 
teacher,  may  be  used  to  stimulate  the  mental  activ- 
ity, rather  than  merely  to  prompt  a  correct  an- 
swer to  the  question. 

In  order  to  stimulate  interest  and  to  promote 
activity  in  the  questioning  period  of  the  recita- 
tion, the  following  rules  should  be  observed : 

1.  Ask  the  question;   then  designate  the  stu- 
dent  who  is  to  answer  it.    Never  address  the  stu-  in*. 
dent  before  stating  the  question;  as,  "Miss  Jones, 
please  tell  me,"  etc. 

2.  Do  not  call  upon  students  in  alphabetical 
order,  or  in  any  other  fixed  order.    When  fixed 
groups  are  made,  the  fact  is  soon  detected,  and 
those  who  are  inclined  to  shirk  will  prepare  them- 
selves accordingly. 


216  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

3.  Ask  only  large,  pivotal  questions,  as  far  as 
practicable.  Train  the  student  in  his  study  to 
formulate  questions  on  points  he  does  not  com- 
prehend. Use  questions  prepared  specifically  for 
the  particular  class  group.  Most  text  books  in 
use  at  present  either  omit  questions  entirely  or 
place  them  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.  There  is  a 
tendency,  however,  for  students  and  some  teach- 
ers to  rely  on  the  headings  of  the  paragraphs  to 
serve  in  place  of  the  questions  which  were  for- 
merly stated. 

Ask  questions  that  will  test  the  knowledge  of 
the  student;  as,  "What  conditions  led  to  the  fall 
of  Kome?";  those  that  will  test  the  understand- 
ing; as,  "What  would  have  been  the  effect  on  the 
South  had  New  Orleans  been  the  port  of  entry"; 
those  that  will  test  the  powers  of  feeling  and  will ; 
as,  "How  would  you  feel?"  and  "What  would 
you  do!" 

The  practice  of  teachers  in  asking  questions 
which  could  be  answered  by  Yes  or  No,  or  by  the 
one  suggestive  word  omitted  in  the  question, 
always  results  in  a  small  speaking  vocabulary. 

It  is  said  that  the  reading  vocabulary  of  the 
average  person  is  about  twenty  thousand  words, 
while  his  speaking  vocabulary  is  only  about  five 
hundred. 

Of  all  methods  of  conducting  a  recitation  the 
one  probably  best  known  and  most  universally 
usec^  *s  ^e  Text  Booh  Method,  which  developed  as 
an  attempt  to  break  away  from  the  early  lecture 
method  of  instruction.  The  use  of  the  Text  Book 
Method  is  not  a  great  improvement  upon  the  Lee- 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  217 

ture  Method.  It  is  supposed  to  provide  for 
greater  self  activity.  This,  it  may  or  may  not 
do.  It  depends  largely  upon  the  teacher  as  he  di- 
rects the  class.  With  many  teachers,  students 
memorize  the  text  and  report  to  the  recitation 
period  to  exploit  what  they  have  learned  by  an- 
swering questions  stated  in  the  text.  With  other 
teachers,  the  students  are  trained  to  interpret, 
memorize,  and  then  repeat  the  thought  of  the  text. 
While  this  is  a  step  beyond  the  earlier  applica- 
tion  of  the  text  book  method,  yet  even  in  this  the  »«tiioa. 
work  of  the  student  is  limited  to  culling  from  the 
text  the  meager  knowledge  material  contained 
therein,  while  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  merely 
to  test  the  student's  acquisition  of  this  material. 
This  misconception  of  the  purpose  of  study  proves 
most  disastrous.  The  knowledge  gained  consists 
mostly  of  memorized  facts  with  perhaps  ability 
to  use  them  in  the  original  form  or  setting.  The 
student  has  no  conception  of  any  possibility  of 
new  adjustments,  combinations,  and  modifications 
to  enrich  the  old,  to  bring  about  something  new. 
The  effect  on  character  is  no  less  serious.  Hav- 
ing a  false  standard  of  attainment,  the  student 
attempts  outward  perfection  in  form  of  knowledge 
rather  than  growth  in  the  content  of  it.  Failure 
to  accomplish  his  task  results  in  discouragement, 
lack  of  self  confidence,  often  in  dishonesty,  suspi- 
cion of  the  teacher,  and  ultimately  in  antagonism 
toward  all  life  problems  and  people  in  general. 
Those  who  really  study  and  learn  under  such  con- 
ditions may  be  said  to  do  so  in  spite  of  the  method 
of  instruction. 


218 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  real  goal 
of  Instruction. 


The  develop. 
lag1  method. 


The  practice  among  many  teachers  of  marking 
or  grading  the  student  on  his  daily  recitation  has 
caused  him  to  lay  emphasis  on  the  text  book 
knowledge,  and  to  lose  sight  of  the  real  goal  of 
instruction, — the  establishment  of  fixed  habits  of 
thought  and  action. 

Books  have  been  greatly  improved;  and  when 
used  as  guides,  or  outlines  for  both  the  teacher 
and  student,  they  serve  as  time  savers,  and  as  a 
means  for  determining  disputed  theories  and  for 
correcting  misconceptions. 

The  most  modern  of  all  mehtods  used  in  the 
most  progressive  schools  of  the  present  day  is 
called  by  some  the  Discussion  Method,  by  some 
the  Conversational  Method,  and  by  others  the  De- 
veloping Method  of  the  Eecitation.  In  this 
method,  the  teacher  guides  the  students  in  verify- 
ing and  applying  the  results  of  their  study  and 
research  for  the  truths  obtained  from  a.  lesson 
problem.  The  Developing  Method  provides  prob- 
ably the  greatest  opportunity  for  conducting  the 
recitation  according  to  the  most  generally  ac- 
cepted views. 

During  the  period  of  recitation  conducted  by 
this  method,  there  is  free  discussion  of  the  vari- 
ous aspects  of  the  problem,  their  relative  worth  is 
weighed  and  considered,  and  a  conclusion  reached 
and  verified.  The  student  does  not  accept  the 
facts  merely  because  given  by  good  authority. 
He  tests  for  himself  through  application  the  prac- 
tical value  of  the  principles,  and  discovers  new 
and  more  effective  means  for  their  use.  It  has 
been  said  that  "  there  is  all  the  difference  in  the 


THE  LESSON   CONTINUED  219 

world  in  having  to  say  something  and  having 
something  to  say". 

In  this  method  of  the  recitation,  the  student  no 
longer  feels  he  must  recite,  but  that  he  must  have 
a  chance  to  express  his  opinion,  to  prove  his  view 
point,  or  to  get  needed  information. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  this  method  is 
used  independently  of  the  text  book,  any  more 
so  than  any  other  methods  discussed.  Books  for 
schools  have  been  very  happily  called  text  books, 
the  very  name  signifying  an  outline  or  guide  to 
study.  Students  must  be  trained  to  be  independ- 
ent of  both  teacher  and  text  book.  The  Develop- 
ing Method,  with  the  text  book  as  a  guide  for  the 
student,  provides  for  much  independent  study 
through  the  use  of  supplementary  material. 

Herein  lies  the  great  change  in  the  view  point 
of  the  stutdent.    He  no  longer  thinks  only  of  the 
mastery  of  text  book  knowledge.    He  no  longer 
venerates  books,  but  regards  them  as  necessary 
equipment  provided  for  use  in  special  lines  of 
activity,  just  as  the  crayon  or  laboratory  supplies  Boofcg  ard 
are  furnished  for  certain  activities.    Both  the  ^*S££e9 
teacher  and  the  student  now  understand  the  real  of  material, 
value  of  the  various  studies  in  furnishing  specific 
elements  of  mental  food  necessary  to  increase  par- 
ticular mental  powers, — nature  study  and  history 
for  the  cultivation  of  observation  and  retention, 
grammar  and  arithmetic  for  the  reasoning  pow- 
ers ;  and  literature  and  ethics  for  emotion  and  will. 

The  use  of  the  text  book  as  a  source  of  material 
and  as  a  guide  as  well,  eliminates  one  of  the  great- 
est dangers  in.  the  use  of  this  method. 


220  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

The  adoption  of  this  method  by  inexperienced 
and  untrained  teachers  may  result  in  incoherent, 
illogical,  and  superficial  work.  Accustomed  to 
plans  specifically  set,  they  are  sometimes  lacking 
in  powers  of  self  direction.  They  find  difficulty 
in  its  application  primarily  because  of  their  ina- 
bility to  lead  in  a  discussion.  Having  had  little 
experience  in  study  beyond  the  pages  of  a  text 
book,  they  must  depend  upon  following  the  well 
established  plan  of  their  predecessors. 

All  teachers,  especially  those  who  are  un- 
trained and  unskilled,  need  a  well  developed  les- 
son plan  to  prevent  wandering  or  digressing  from 
the  discussion  of  the  problem  assigned.  Often 
there  is  much  time  and  energy  wasted  through 
lack  of  such  a  plan.  It  is  the  teacher's  task  to 
provide  these  plans,  and  thus  prevent  needless 
waste. 

It  is  not  expected  that  any  attempt  be  made  to 
use  this  method  in  dealing  with  those  facts  which 
need  no  development,  such  as  the  self  evident 
maxim,  "Time  is  Passing." 

The  Steps  of  the  Recitation. — In  every  recita- 
tion properly  conducted,  its  formal  steps  may  be 
accurately  traced.  They  are  often  called  the  Her- 
bartian  Method  of  Instruction  because  Herbart 
was  the  first  to  work  out  a  process  of  instruction 
based  upon  the  process  of  mental  growth  and  ac- 
tivity, that  is  of  investigation,  generalization,  and 
conclusion.  The  Formal  Steps  may  be  given  as  the 
presentation  of  individual  notions,  the  procedure 
from  individual  to  general  notions,  and  last  the 
appreciation  of  general  notions.  Stated  specific- 


THE  LESSON    CONTINUED  221 

ally,  there  are  five  Formal  Steps,  (1)  Preparation, 
(2)  Presentation,  (3)  Comparison  and  Abstrac- 
tion,  (4)  Definition  and,  (5)  Application.  These  * 
steps  provide  for  the  teacher  an  intelligent 
method  of  procedure  in  his  instruction ;  that  is,  of 
beginning  with  known  facts,  preceding  from  those 
to  more  general  and  unknown  truths,  and  finally 
after  having  verified  these  principles,  applying 
them  in  present  day  activities. 

Preparation.— Preparation,  the  first  of  the  For-  Tuenrstste 
mal  Steps  of  the  Eecitation,  provides,  through  the 
calling  up  of  past  experiences  and  a  review  of  the 
facts  already  learned,  for  the  application  of  the 
principle  of  apperception.  Examination  of  the 
student's  fund  of  knowledge  material  which  fur- 
nishes the  foundation  for  the  new  ideas  becomes 
the  first  task  of  the  teacher.  To  ascertain  the 
correctness  of  the  ideas  already  possessed  as  well 
as  the  abundance  of  them  is  of  great  importance. 
Through  reviews  the  teacher  may  refresh  the 
mind  of  the  student,  correct  misconceptions,  and 
strengthen  the  ideas  already  formed. 

The  term  Review  is  often  interpreted  in  a  literal  Review  ana 
sense,  that  is  merely  to  see  again,  and  is  con-  ' 
ducted  as  a  drill  lesson.    The  drill  lesson,  repeat- 
ing the  facts,  in  fixed  order  and  form,  establishes 
a  fixed  habit  of  response  and  thus  makes  the 
knowledge  permanent.      Both  reviews  and  drills 
serve  a  specific  educational  purpose  and  should  be 
so  planned  as  not  to  consist  of  monotonous  repe- 
titions. 

A  knowledge  of  the  student's  attitude  toward 
his  task  is  necessary  in  preparing  for  the  develop- 


222 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


New  Idea* 
must  be  as- 
sociated with 
old  ones. 


The  attitude 
of  the 
teacher. 


ment  of  a  new  thought  and  its  adjustment  to  the 
knowledge  already  possessed.  Failure  to  regard 
carefully  each  of  these  points  sooner  or  later  re- 
sults seriously.  The  assumption  that  a  student 
understands  a  principle  because  it  has  been  given 
in  a  preceding  lesson  or  because  he  may  discuss 
it  fluently,  is  not  safe.  Misconception  always 
leads  to  incorrect  conclusions  and  applications. 
Students  realize  this  truth  perhaps  aftener  in 
mathematics  than  in  other  subjects.  In  the  teach- 
ing of  history,  literature,  and  science,  as  well  as 
in  mathematics,  new  ideas  should  be  related  to 
those  already  learned  since  they  can  be  understood 
only  when  so  presented.  No  student  can  enjoy 
"Paul  Bevere's  Bide"  unless  it  is  given  in  its 
proper  setting;  nor  the  story  of  the  "Boston  Tea 
Party"  without  a  knowledge  of  the  struggle  over 
the  tax  on  tea.  The  mere  recital  of  incidents  in 
history  or  literature  is  a  process  similar  to  recit- 
ing verbatim  the  stated  problems  and  answers  in 
Algebra  and  so  ending  the  Algebra  lesson. 

Through  this  preparatory  work,  the  teacher  is 
given  an  excellent  opportunity  for  discovering  the 
predilections  of  the  student.  The  feelings  play 
an  important  part  in  determining  the  course  of  ac- 
tion and  must  be  considered  by  the  teacher  in 
cultivating  definite  habits  of  thought.  Every  one 
is  influenced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  his 
feelings.  An  indifferent  or  repellent  attitude 
prevents  a  ready  grasp  of  new  ideas ;  whereas  the 
manner  in  which  the  student  first  grasps  a  new 
idea  will  determine  his  later  conception  of  it. 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  223 

The  statement  of  the  subject  of  the  problem  and 
the  development  of  an  individual  aim  for  the  stu-  B 
dent  prove  of  great  value.  By  this,  the  student, 
as  well  as  the  teacher,  is  made  aware  of  the  close 
relation  of  the  new  ideas  to  those  the  student  had 
before.  From  this  there  is  developed  a  more  per- 
sonal appreciation  through  a  realization  of  per- 
sonal need  of  this  new  knowledge  material. 

Presentation. — The   Preparatory   Step   having  The  second 
been  well  made,  the  second  step  in  the  method  of  * 
instruction,  the  presentation  of  the  subject  mat- 
ter, proceeds  rapidly  and  without  danger  of  mis- 
conceptions since  the  student  through  the  light  of 
his  past  experiences  readily  grasps  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  problem. 

The  Methods  of  the  Eecitation  which  have  been 
discussed  apply  to  each  of  the  Formal  Steps  of 
the  Eecitation.  The  method  should  be  used  in  the 
steps  of  presentation  which  will  best  provide  for 
the  student's  " complete  appropriation"  of  the 
new  knowledge.  In  this  step  the  student  should 
through  actual  experience  observe  closely  this  ma- 
terial in  relation  to  his  past  experience  and  then 
select  for  himself  details  for  the  solution  of  the 
lesson  problem. 

Generalization. — Having  collected  the  data,  the 
step  of  generalization  is  employed  in  organizing 
and  arranging  the  material.  Unorganized  mate- 
rial  is  worthless,  facts  must  be  compared  and  their  recitation, 
relative  worth  determined  before  a  conclusion  can 
be  reached.  The  step  of  generalization  involves 
the  processes  of  comparison  and  abstraction  and 
the  reaching  of  the  conclusion  or  definition. 


224 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Standards 
of  measures. 


Text  "book  a 
a  guide  only. 


The  fifth 
step. 


In  the  process  of  comparison  the  student  needs 
some  well  chosen  types,  as  standard  units  or  meas- 
ures by  means  of  which  he  may  judge  the  relative 
value  of  his  material.  All  business  transactions 
are  based  upon  some  accepted  standard  of  meas- 
ure; as  the  dollar,  the  yard,  the  pound,  etc.  It 
is  not  a  good  practice  to  leave  the  student  without 
a  standard  thought  unit  of  measure,  that  is,  to 
teach  him  definitions  and  rules  with  no  typical 
example  to  be  used  as  a  gtiide  in  study  and  re- 
search. The  result  would  be  inaccuracy,  indef- 
initeness  and  misconception.  A  student  often  re- 
peats glibly,  "A  verb  is  a  word  that  expresses 
action,"  but  when  requested  to  give  an  example 
he  is  unable  to  do  so. 

In  making  the  step  of  comparison,  sufficient 
data  should  be  used  to  cover  the  essential  elements 
of  the  problem  and  thus  to  insure  a  correct  gen- 
eral conclusion.  When  this  is  done,  the  statement 
of  the  conclusion  or  definition  should  be  left  to  the 
student.  Book  definitions,  unless  fully  compre- 
hended, add  little  either  in  thought  or  language  to 
a  student's  stock  of  knowledge.  If  the  student 
understands  the  meaning,  he  can  easily  word  the 
statement  of  his  conclusion  independently,  since 
he  has  the  data  from  which  he  developed  the  gen- 
eral notion.  The  text  book  statement  then  would 
be  needed  only  as  a  guide  in  elegance  or  concise- 
ness of  expression.  The  value  of  elegant  expres- 
sion should  be  emphasized.  Colloquialisms  should 
be  always  discouraged. 

Application. — The  lesson  problems  having  been 
presented,  and  the  conclusion  reached,  there  re- 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  225 

mains  an  essential  step,  that  of  application.  The 
ideal  held  up  for  the  student  of  the  past  was, 
" Learn  today  that  you  may  use  and  enjoy  tomor- 
row." The  modern  precept  is,  "  Learn  to  use  and 
enjoy  today  and  you  will  be  prepared  to  do  so 
tomorrow. " 

Training  must  be  given  in  the  application  of 
knowledge  as  much  as  in  acquisition.    Knowledge  tSnsic  n< 
has  no  intrinsic  value.    Only  so  far  as  it  is  usable  v 
does  it  become  power. 

Application  quickens  thought  and  initiative,  de- 
velops accuracy  and  efficiency.  Formerly  in  the 
laboratories,  the  student  tested  his  principle  for 
verification.  Now,  in  the  shops,  in  school,  and  in 
the  home  he  actually  works  out  and  produces  fin- 
ished products  as  proof  of  the  principles  learned. 
Be  is  no  longer  a  mere  dreamer,  but  a  successful 
producer,  with  science  for  his  guide. 

From  the  kindergarten  throughout  the  school 
course,  the  child  of  the  present  has  before  him 
tremendous  possibilities.  Upon  whatever  task  he 
labors,  he  sees  the  ultimate  end  of  his  efforts,  and 
thus  receives  inspiration  to  bend  his  energies  to- 
wards its  accomplishment.  For  example,  in  a  les- 
son in  reading,  a  beautiful  poem  becomes  a  per- 
sonal treasure  which  he  may  share  with  others ;  a 
good  story  learned  receives  added  value  in  that  it 
may  be  retold.  Everything  given  in  the  school 
course  is  taken  as  a  new  contribution  to  his  stock 
of  knowledge. 

Often  a  misconception  of  the  purpose  of  the 
Formal  Steps  of  Eecitation  causes  objections  to 
their  use  in  instruction.  The  steps  themselves  are 


226         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

of  no  value,  but  serve  only  to  give  to  instruction 
-the  order  which  corresponds  to  the  processes  of 
thought.  It  must  be  understood  that  each  of  the 
Formal  Steps  is  applied  in  presenting  any  com- 
plete thought  unit.  But  the  teacher  should  use 
these,  however,  as  a  scientific  process  and  not  as 
mechanical  forms.  The  length  of  the  recitation 
period  will  usually  correspond  to  the  time  re- 
quired to  present  a  thought  unit.  It  is  often  the 
case,  however,  that  a  lesson  problem  may  be 
grouped  into  a  number  of  smaller  thought  units, 
better  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  class.  This  plan 
necessitates  the  use  of  each  step  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  each  unit.  Sometimes,  a  thought  unit  is  of 
such  length  as  to  require  several  recitation  periods 
to  complete  it ;  in  this  case  the  various  steps  are, 
nevertheless,  used  as  the  thought  develops. 

In  the  development  of  The  Lesson  in  its  three 
phases,  The  Lesson  Assignment,  The  Lesson 
Preparation,  and  The  Eecitation,  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  introduce  new  theories.  The  pur- 
pose has  been  to  present  in  a  simple  and  direct 
manner  some  pf  the  most  important  principles  in 
the  solution  of  the  problems  of  the  Lesson.  The 
ideas  advanced  in  the  discussion  have  been  gath- 
ered largely  from  reading  and  observation,  sup- 
plemented somewhat  by  experience.  The  termin- 
ology used  has  been  adopted  from  well  known  au- 
thorities on  the  subject. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  desire  a 
more  advanced  and  complete  study  of  The  Lesson 
and  its  problems,  the  references  below  are  given 
as  sources : 


THE  LESSON  CONTINUED  227 

McMurray — How  to  Study  and  Teaching 
How  to  Study. 

McMurray — The  Method  of  Eecitation. 

Struger — A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching 
Process. 

Dewey — School  and  Society. 

Hamilton — The  Recitation. 

Corapayre — Lectures  on  Pedagogy. 

Eoark — Method  in  Education. 

Monroe — A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of 
Education. 

Angell — General  Psychology. 


CHAPTEK  XVI 


Exact  inf  or. 
mation  and 
definite  plans 
necesssary. 


Plans  of  an 
architect. 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING 

When  undertaking  an  enterprise  of  any  kind, 
the  practical  man  studies  carefully  every  problem 
connected  with  its  execution.  He  strives  for  def- 
inite ideas  concerning  every  detail  of  procedure. 
He  is  particular  in  obtaining  exact  information 
relative  to  the  cost  and  the  liability  he  incurs  in 
assuming  the  responsibility  of  the  business. 

It  would  repay  the  teacher,  before  planning  his 
work  for  the  year,  to  study  critically  a  capable 
architect's  plans  and  specifications  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  great  building.  These  could  be  stud- 
ied profitably,  because  they  impress  the  impor- 
tance of  having  definite  directions  as  a  guide  in 
the  performance  of  complicated  duties. 

In  his  study  of  the  specifications,  he  should  note 
how  particularly  every  detail  of  the  required 
building  is  described;  how  carefully  the  various 
interests  are  protected;  how  clearly  the  respon- 
sibilities of  the  contracting  parties  are  defined  and 
prescribed;  how  explicit  are  the  directions  con- 
cerning the  different  divisions  of  the  construction. 
He  would  find  the  following  topics  discussed 
plainly  and  intelligently :  The  Owner ;  the  Archi- 
tect; the  Contractor;  the  Time  of  Completion; 
Preparation  of  Site;  Excavation;  Inspection; 
Progress  of  Work ;  Materials ;  Workmanship. 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING  229 

No  experienced  mechanic  would  venture  an  esti- 
mate of  the  cost  of  the  building,  without  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  plans  aiid  specifi- 
cations, or  without  graphic  details  of  special  parts, 
drawings  and  elevations  showing  the  building  as 
it  is  to  appear  when  completed,  nor  would  he  un- 
dertake compliance  with  the  specifications  with- 
out having  a  copy  for  constant  reference. 

It  would  be  interesting  and  instructive  to  note  important 
the  qualities  aimed  at  in  the  building;  strength, 
proportion,  beauty  and  durability. 

If  this  study  would  cause  the  teacher  to  plan 
his  work  for  the  year,  and  to  begin  with  a  keener 
insight  into  its  details,  and  clearer  conception  of 
what  should  be  accomplished,  the  time  devoted  to 
such  study  would  have  been  well  spent. 

Too  often,  the  teacher  begins  his  year's  work 
without  definite  plans.  He  is  not  sure  that  he 
knows  what  to  do,  or  how  to  do  it.  He  is  not  well 
acquainted  with  the  means  or  the  material  that 
he  must  use,  nor  has  he  even  an  approximate  esti- 
mate of  the  amount  of  material  needed.  He  makes 
poor  provision  for  estimates  of  progress  from 
time  to  time  during  the  session  of  the  school,  and 
in  consequence  of  this  lack  of  definiteness  he 
flounders  during  all  the  year,  and  despairs  at  the 
close  of  his  contract. 

"Teaching  school"  is  no  more  expressive  of  the 
teacher's  real  work  than  "building  a  house "  is 
of  the  specifications  of  the  mechanic.    In  the  con-  various  roles 
struction  of  a  building,  the  owner  trusts  to  the  teacher, 
architect  for  plans,  inspection  and  supervision; 
in  teaching  school  the  teacher  is  the  architect,  the 


230  PBINCIPLES  AND  PBOCESSES 

mechanic,  the  workman,  and  the  inspector.  He 
draws  his  own  plans ;  he  writes  his  own  specifica- 
tions; he  supervises  and  inspects  his  own  work, 
and  he  accepts  or  rejects  it  in  the  end.  He  is 
trusted  more  than  the  architect,  the  mechanic,  or 
the  workman,  therefore,  he  ought  to  appreciate 
the  greater  trust  and  recognize  the  more  serious 
responsibility.  He  should  constantly  examine 
himself,  scrutinize  his  plans,  and  inspect  the  re- 
sults of  his  teaching.  The  structure  he  is  trying 
to  erect  should  stand  when  completed,  and  endure 
after  he  has  departed. 

It  is  worth  while  for  the  teacher  to  inquire  into 
his  own  educational  status.  The  completion  of  the 
edifice  he  has  been  entrusted  to  build  costs  effort 
and  skill.  The  question  that  Jesus,  the  greatest 
of  all  teachers,  once  propounded  to  his  disciples 
is  a  very  pertinent  one  for  the  teacher. 

"For  which  of  you,  intending  to  build 
a  tower,  sitteth  not  down  first  and  count- 
eth  the  cost,  whether  he  have  sufficient  to 
finish  it,  Lest  haply,  after  he  hath  laid 
the  foundation,  and  is  not  able  to  finish 
it,  all  that  behold  it  begin  to  mock  him, 
saying,  This  man  began  to  build,  and  was 
not  able  to  finish  it." 

The  work  of  the  teacher  for  the  year  is  to  carry 
forward  the  building  of  a  structure  in  the  person 
of  each  pupil.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he  passes 
the  pupil  to  another  teacher,  to  continue  the  build- 
mg-  The  teacher  must  build  on  the  foundation  of 
structure.*8  the  work  done  by  the  teacher  preceding  him,  and 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING  231 

must  also  broaden  the  foundation  for  the  work 
of  the  teacher  succeeding  him.  All  are  concerned 
in  the  structure.  They  all  should  comprehend,  as 
some  of  its  essential  characteristics,  the  following: 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  realities  and  actualities  of 

life,  its  duties  and  its  beauties ;  its  purposes 
and  responsibilities.  The  branch  of  study 
from  which  these  materials  are  supposed  to 
be  garnered,  are  usually  given  in  the  curri- 
culum. 

2.  Power  to  observe  and  to  interpret  what  the 

mind  perceives ;  to  recall  into  consciousness 
previous  percepts  and  concepts,  and  to  unite 
them  into  judgment;  to  think  accurately, 
quickly  and  independently. 

3.  Skill  in  utilizing  all  forms  of  knowledge,  in 

self-expression  as  exhibited  in  speaking, 
writing,  drawing,  singing,  and  in  the  use  of 
the  hand  and  mechanical  contrivances. 

4.  Character  as  exhibited  in  habits  of  thought,  in 

self-control,  in  conduct,  in  truthfulness,  in 
courtesy,  in  firmness,  integrity  of  life  and 
purity  of  thought. 

These  qualities  give  strength,  symmetry  and 
beauty  to  the  mental  structure  of  the  pupil,  and 
when  the  session  is  ended,  inspection  ought  to  con- 
sider  all  these  items  in  determining  the  progress 
and  fitness  for  promotion. 

Tests  of  the  progress  of  the  pupil  should  be  f re- 
quent.  The  teacher  who  does  not  constantly  watch 
the  improvement  of  the  pupil,  but  waits  till  the 
end  of  the  session  to  determine  whether  the  work 
has  been  done  in  a  manner  that  justifies  his  pro- 


232 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Opportunities 
for  testing* 
the  results 
of  teaching*. 


The  teacher 
should  have 
great  liberty. 


The  teacher's 
liberty  should 
not  violate 
principles. 


motion,  and  finding  him  unprepared  for  it,  assigns 
him  the  same  work  again  for  the  next  year,  has 
not  justified  the  trust  imposed  in  him.  This  plan 
would  be  like  an  architect's  waiting  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  building,  and  then  setting  fire  to  it 
in  order  to  ascertain  if  it  meets  the  requirements 
of  being  fireproof,  and  finding  that  it  burns,  de- 
manding of  the  mechanic  that  he  rebuild  it  the 
same  way  as  before. 

The  opportunities  for  testing  come  every  day. 
The  recitation,  the  study  period,  the  play-ground, 
all  afford  ample  opportunity  to  the  teacher  for 
ascertaining  whether  the  student  is  acquiring 
those  elements  of  education  that  the  teacher  has 
planned  for  him.  The  oral  review,  which  should 
be  frequently  given,  and  the  periodical  written 
test,  enable  the  teacher  to  estimate  the  student's 
growth  in  knowledge,  in  the  power  of  independent 
thought  and  skill  in  expression. 

The  teacher  should  have  the  widest  possible  lati- 
tude in  his  manner  of  presenting  the  subject  or 
instructing  the  classes.  In  all  mechanical  work 
in  which  the  hand  operates  on  wood,  metal,  or 
other  concrete  substance,  one  may  be  directed  ex- 
actly how  to  hold  the  saw  or  use  the  plane,  but 
where  mind  operates  upon  mind,  each  teacher 
must  respond  to  the  inspiration  that  comes  to  him 
alone,  and  must  do  his  work  in  his  own  way,  with- 
out dictation  or  undue  interference  from  author- 
ity. 

But  while  certain  latitude  must  be  allowed  the 
teacher  in  all  his  work,  still,  his  liberty  should  not 
be  a  license  to  ignore  or  defy  the  best  thought 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING  233 

crystallized  into  unanimous  verdict  of  those  whose 
investigations,  experience,  and  service  have 
stamped  them  as  authority  on  questions  of  educa- 
tion. 

While  the  superintendent  should  not  mar  the 
efficiency  of  his  corps  of  teachers  by  unnecessary 
interference  and  needless  suggestion,  still  since  it 
is  his  duty  to  study  educational  problems,  to  guide 
his  school  along  proper  lines,  and  since  he  is  most 
responsible  for  its  policy  and  its  ideals,  the  wis- 
dom of  its  methods  and  the  efficiency  of  its  instruc- 
tion, he  is  derelict  if  he  does  not  note  the  nature 
of  the  instruction  given,  the  spirit  pervading  the 
institution,  and  from  time  to  time  in  consultation 
with  teachers  or  in  conferences  of  the  faculty  offer" 
such  suggestions  or  such  directions  as  in  his  judg- 
ment enhance  the  efficiency  and  improve  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  the  school. 

The  promotion  of  pupils  has  always  been  one  of  P£°5J° ^Jaofg 
the  most  perplexing  problems  of  the  school.  The 
question  presents  itself  from  so  many  different 
view  points ;  false  ambitions  so  often  clamor  for 
undeserved  honors,  sometimes  failure  signifies  so 
much  to  the  student,  that  the  granting  or  the  re- 
fusal of  promotion  will  continue  a  question  de- 
manding the  most  thoughtful  consideration  and 
the  exercise  of  the  most  clear-sighted  judgment. 

To  the  novice,  who  believes  that  a  spiritual  at- 
tainment or  a  mental  product  may  be  expressed 
exactly  in  arabic  numerals,  that  intellectual 
growth  may  be  indicated  with  exactitude  by  a  men- 
tal thermometer,  an  educational  pair  of  balances, 
or  a  psychical  meter,  the  problem  has  no  more 


234 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Promotion 
not  a  simple 
problem. 


What  pupils 
may  claim 
the  right  of 
promotion. 


The  teacher 
is  the  logical 
Judg-e  of  the 
attainments 
of  the  pupils. 


The  teacher 
should  con. 
eider  all  per. 
tinent  evi- 
dence. 


complications  than  that  of  the  addition  of  a  series 
of  numbers  and  a  division  to  determine  the  *  '  aver- 
age," but  to  the  veteran  teacher,  experienced  in 
the  actual  work  of  the  class-room,  the  problem  is 
neither  simple  nor  its  solution  in  exact  figures 
possible. 

The  late  Professor  Simon  Newcomb,  America's 
foremost  mathematician  and  astronomer,  after 
years  of  teaching  in  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy,  said  that  he  could  determine  the  dis- 
tance to  a  planet  and  calculate  its  orbit  and  its 
specific  gravity  to  any  required  degree  of  approxi- 
mation, but  to  determine  with  any  degree  of  pre- 
cision the  comparative  standing  of  the  students  in 
a  class  baffled  any  skill  that  he  had. 

The  only  claim  that  the  student  may  urge  for 
promotion  is  that  he  has  met  the  demands  of  his 
class,  and  that  he  is  capable  of  doing  the  work  of 
the  next  succeeding  class,  or  of  discharging  his 
obligations  to  the  public  upon  graduation. 

The  justness  of  this  claim  can  be  determined 
best  by  his  teacher.  Whether  the  means  used  in 
determining  the  answer  is  by  the  daily  recitation, 
the  oral  examination,  the  periodic  written  test,  or 
the  term  examination,  the  entire  question,  in  its 
final  analysis,  is  merely  the  opinion  of  the  teacher. 

It  is  the  right  of  every  one  in  any  station  of  life 
to  form  his  own  opinions,  and  the  forging  of  these 
opinions  must  be  made  in  his  own  crucible,  and 
not  in  that  of  another,  but  as  sacred  as  one's  opin- 
ions are  to  him,  he  has  no  right  to  form  them  with- 
out competence  evidence. 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS   OF  TEACHING  235 

There  are  certain  well  established  principles 
that  should  guide  the  juryman  in  the  box,  the 
judge  on  the  bench,  and  the  teacher  in  the  school, 
and  in  maturing  his  judgment  he  can  not  afford  to 
be  a  law  unto  himself  and  ignore  or  violate  prin- 
ciples so  well  established  that  they  have  become 
canons  no  longer  to  be  questioned. 

No  two  instructors  can  teach  alike,  but  there  are 
fundamental  principles  that  all  teachers  must  re- 
spect ;  no  two  teachers  form  their  estimates  of  the 
student  in  precisely  the  same  way,  yet  there  are  in 
the  making  up  of  estimates  also  well  established 
principles  that  should  have  recognition. 

In  whatever  way  the  teacher  may  test  the  re- 
sults of  the  student  ?s  effort,  he  should  arrive  at  a 
correct  estimate.  This  estimate  need  not  be  so 
exact  as  to  be  expressible  in  Arabic  notation,  but 
he  should  reach  a  decision  in  a  manner  that  makes 
him  confident  that  his  conclusion  is  safe,  sound 
and  rational.  He  should  be  convinced  that  he  has 
given  due  weight  to  all  pertinent  testimony,  and 
that  there  has  been  no  element  of  chance  in  the 
formation  of  his  verdict. 

His  methods  should  not  only  give  him  the  assur- 
ance of  having  obtained  a  just  verdict,  but  they 
should  be  so  manifestly  fair,  so  searching,  so  ex- 
haustive that  there  is  no  ground  for  suspicion  on 
the  part  of  the  student  that  the  verdict  lacks  care- 
ful preparation  from  proper  data. 

I  suppose  that  it  has  been  the  experience  of 
every  superintendent  that  he  had  in  his  faculty 
some  member  whose  failure  to  promote  the  stu- 
dent provoked  constant  complaint,  while  there 


236 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Verdict  of 
the  teacher 
should  "be  so 
manifestly 
just  that  it 
commands 
respect. 


A"bu«o  of  the 
test  toy  the 
"final"  ex- 
amination. 


were  other  teachers  who  refused  to  pass  a  greater 
number  and  yet  escaped  at  least  open  expression 
of  dissatisfaction  with  their  marking. 

Scarcely  any  teacher  is  so  fortunate  as  to  escape 
the  charge  of  unfairness  from  an  occasional  mal- 
content, even  if  the  charge  is  offered  in  excuse 
for  self-admitted  dereliction  on  the  part  of  the 
student,  but  any  teacher  falls  far  short  of  his 
greatest  possibility  if  he  fails  to  impress  the  great 
majority  of  his  pupils  that  he  is  not  only  impar- 
tial, but  rational  and  just  in  his  decisions. 

The  rationality  of  the  methods  of  every  teacher 
should  be  so  patent,  that  every  other  member  of 
the  faculty  with  whom  he  is  associated  is  ready  to 
defend  him  against  criticism,  and  the  superintend- 
ent altogether  safe  in  assuring  a  complaining  stu- 
dent that  his  contention  is  groundless.  Any  other 
condition  in  a  school  is  unfortunate. 

There  ought  not  to  be  an  inflexible  rule  by  which 
every  teacher  should  measure  the  student.  This 
would  reduce  all  the  processes  of  education  to 
mere  mechanics,  and  one  of  the  gravest  charges 
against  the  schools  of  today  is  that  they  are  be- 
coming too  mechanical. 

Beyond  question,  no  one  method  of  determining 
the  status  of  the  student  has  been  more  abused 
and  misused  than  the  so-called  "  final  examina- 
tion. "  The  examination  has  its  own  place  in  the 
scheme  of  education.  It  should  be  permitted  to 
keep  its  place  and  to  perform  its  office,  but  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  usurp  powers  and  func- 
tions that  do  not  belong  to  it. 

Except  in  rare  instances,  the  teacher  does  not 


TESTING   THE  RESULTS   OF  TEACHING  237 

need  the  examination  in  order  to  determine  the 
status  of  the  pupil.  In  these  cases  it  may  be  used 
to  remove  any  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher 
and  to  show  the  student  himself  his  true  status, 
and  thus  relieve  the  teacher  of  any  charge  of  in-  fhe^tatusof 

,.  J  the  pupil. 

justice. 

Seeley  says,  in  his  "New  School  Management," 
that  some  of  the  educational  advantages  of  an  ex- 
amination are: 

"1.  It  tests  the  ability  to  summon  all  of  one's 
powers  upon  occasion  for  extraordinary  exertion 
and  to  exhibit  the  knowledge  and  power  possessed 

, ,  Value  of 

Upon  a  given  theme.  the_examina. 

"2.  It  trains  the  student  in  the  use  of  good  lan- 
guage, concisely  put,  under  limitation  of  time. 

"3.  It  requires  the  exercise  of  judgment  as  to 
essentials  and  non-essentials. 

"4.  It  solidifies  and  classifies  the  knowledge  of 
the  subject  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

"5.  It  shows  both  pupil  and  teacher  wherein 
the  preparation  has  been  weak,  or  where  it  has 
proved  unsatisfactory." 

He  says  again : 

"The  examination  should  be  a  fair  test  of  the 
work  that  has  been  covered,  should  be  free  from 
enigmas,  and  the  language  employed  should  be  so 
clear  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  question. 

"The  large  proportion  of  a  class  that  has  been 
taught  by  the  examiner,  should  pass,  else  the  ques-  should  «pass 
tions  have  been  too  difficult  or  the  teaching  has 
been  bad." 


238 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  nature 
of  the  exami- 
nation. 


Quotation 

from 

Baldwin. 


Baldwin  says,  in  "The  Art  of  School  Manage- 
ment": 

"The  examination  should  undoubtedly  consti- 
tute what  the  pupil  ought  to  know,  or  ought  to  be 
able  to  know.  The  examination  should  be  a  test 
of  the  ability  and  acquirements  of  the  pupil,  not 
of  his  power  to  memorize. 

"The  questions  should  be  pointed  and  clear,  re- 
quiring brief  and  definite  answers. 

"Principles,  plain  problems  involving  prin- 
ciples, essential  definitions,  leading  features,  and 
work  to  be  done  are  the  points  to  be  pressed. 

"The  examination  should  undoubtedly  consti- 
tute one  of  the  conditions  of  promotion.  Is  it  the 
most  prominent  condition?  I  think  not." 

White  says,  in  his  "Elements  of  Pedagogy": 

"Teachers  as  a  class  over-estimate  the  progress 
of  their  pupils,  and  the  more  superficial  the 
teacher  the  greater  this  failing." 

Frequent  oral  and  written  tests  would  tend 
greatly  to  remove  misconceptions  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  and  enable  him  to  ascertain  the  con- 
dition of  advancement  of  his  class,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  final  examination,  when  all  defects  dis- 
covered in  the  teaching  are  irremediable. 

It  is  not  good  policy  to  indicate  in  advance  just 
what  specific  topics  will  be  treated  in  an  exam- 
ination, but  when  a  teacher  has  made  such  an 
announcement  he  is  bound  by  it.  Whenever  the 
teacher  has  given  the  class  an  outline,  leading 
them  to  infer  that  it  contains  the  essential  topics 
of  his  subject,  the  complaint  that  in  the  examina- 
tion he  went  beyond  the  outline,  or  did  not  even 


TESTING  THE   RESULTS   OF   TEACHING  239 

enter  the  outline  is  a  just  ground  of  dissatisfac- 
tion, because  the  teacher  has  not  the  right  to  mis- 
lead the  student. 

When  examination  questions  are  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  student  they  ought  to  be  not  only 
clear,  unambiguous  and  definite,  but  they  should 
be  written  with  unmistakable  legibility.  In  me- 
chanical  execution  the  questions  should  be  a  per- 
feet  model  for  the  answers  that  are  to  be  handed 
in  by  the  student. 

No  student  ought  to  be  refused  a  passing  mark 
upon  an  examination  based  upon  an  illegible  ques- 
tion paper. 

Payne  says,  in  his  "Education  of  Teachers": 

"It  is  manifestly  unfair  and  unjust  to  spring  Quotation 
surprises  on  the  pupil,  by  demanding  what  he  has 
not  had  an  opportunity  to  learn. 

"As  a  preparation  for  setting  an  examination 
paper,  the  teacher  should  ask  himself  the  ques- 
tion: What  ground  have  I  traversed  with  this 
class?  What  knowledge  have  I  given  these  pupils 
a  perfectly  fair  opportunity  to  gain!  What  de- 
gree of  constructive  power  over  new  combinations 
have  they  had  an  opportunity  to  acquire!  What 
I  want  to  insist  on  is  absolute  fairness  in  these  e 
dealings  with  students.  I  have  known  at  least  one 
instance  wherein  one-half  an  examination  paper 
bore  upon  matter  which  the  class  had  never  had 
the  opportunity  to  learn.  The  first  effect  of  this 
paper  was  dismay,  and  then  a  determination  to 
offset  wrong  by  wrong,  so  that  the  pupils,  who 
never  cheated  before  now  resorted  to  cheating 
with  a  will. 


240  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

"Another  principle,  or  rather  the  first  principle 
stated  in  different  form  is :  An  examination  pa- 
per should  represent  the  state  of  the  pupil's  mind 
rather  than  the  state  of  the  teacher's  mind.  This 
is  very  far  from  being  a  needless  caution.  We 
are  all  in  danger  of  putting  too  high  a  value  on 
our  acquisitions,  especially  when  they  are  in  any 
sense  unique  or  exceptional.  With  this  feeling  it 
is  natural  to  give  such  acquirement  an  airing,  and 
the  examination  paper  furnishes  an  attractive  op- 
portunity. 

"Another  principle  to  be  observed  is  this:  An 
examination  paper  should  open  up  the  highways 
and  not  the  byways  of  knowledge,  important  dates 
and  places,  major  facts,  cardinal  principles;  not 
the  trivial  but  the  respectable. 

"Some  things  are  so  trifling  that  it  is  almost  a 
disgrace  to  know  them.  An  examination  paper 
should  have  an  air  of  dignity  and  respectability 
and  the  moral  quality  of  fairness." 

One  of  the  strongest  advocates  of  the  final  ex- 
amination test  is  Bagley.  He  says,  in  "The  Edu- 
cative Process": 

"This  [examination]  is  the  cap-stone  of  the  re- 
Quotation  view  process.  The  very  essence  of  an  examination 
BaSey.  is  its  formal  character.  So-called  informal  ex- 

aminations or  tests  may  be  valuable  for  certain 
purposes,  but  they  entirely  miss  the  virile  virtue 
that  the  examination,  in  the  strenuous  sense  of  the 
term,  possesses." 

But  he  adds : 

"The  function  of  the  examination  as  a  test  of 
the  pupil's  knowledge  is  not  of  paramount  impor- 


TESTIKG  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING  241 

tance,  but  its  function  as  an  organizing  agency  of 
knowledge  is  supreme.'' 

The  use  of  the  final  examination  as  the  only  test 
or  the  most  important  test  is  now  universally  con- 
demned by  writers  on  education. 

It  is  unfair  that  the  student,  after  spending  nine 
months  in  the  recitation  room  face  to  face  with 
the  teacher,  must  stake  all  his  chances  of  promo- 
tion or  graduation  upon  his  ability  to  make  a  cer- 
tain per  cent  on  a  limited  number  of  questions, 
sometimes  carelessly  prepared  and  made  from  the 
standpoint  of  what  he  ought  to  know,  and  not  what 
he  has  been  given  the  opportunity  to  know.  The 
giving  of  undue  importance  to  the  final  examina- 
tion creates  a  spirit  of  anxiety,  uncertainty,  rest- 
lessness and  distrust  of  the  teacher  during  the  en- 
tire session.  This  state  of  anxiety  is  intensified 
by  the  knowledge  of  the  fact,  that  in  preceding 
sessions  some  have  passed  whose  mediocre  work 
during  the  entire  session  was  currently  known  to 
the  whole  class,  while  promotion  was  denied  to 
some  who  had  been  the  acknowledged  leaders  of 
the  class. 

The  world  makes  some  mistakes  in  its  estimate 
of  men,  but  the  general  verdict  of  the  people  at 
large  is  always  safest,  and  though  the  teacher  may 
not  err,  the  concurrent  opinion  of  classmates,  nearly  always 
when  different  from  that  of  the  teacher,  will  in  c 
nearly  all  instances  become  the  verdict  of  the 
school,  as  a  whole,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
teacher  may  not  learn  his  pupils  during  the  year 
but  during  nine  months'  continuous  association 
they  learn  one  another. 


242 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Quotation 
from  Payne. 


Unfair  meth- 
ods create 
antagonisms. 


Additional 
trials. 


Quoting  again  from  Payne :    , 

"It  is  my  belief  that  the  almost  universal  antag* 
onism  between  students  and  their  instructors,  and 
the  existence  of  a  code  of  school  morality  quite 
distinct  from  that  code  of  morals  that  obtains  out- 
side the  school,  are  due  in  a  large  measure  to  an 
injustice,  not  to  say  immorality,  originally  intro- 
duced into  examinations  by  instructors  them- 
selves. By  means  of  his  examination  paper,  a 
teacher  may  make  himself  the  arbiter  of  his  pu- 
pil's fate;  he  can  condemn  him  to  any  degree  of 
humiliation,  can  block  his  progress  in  the  school, 
and  can  send  him  home  on  unjust  principles,  or 
by  looseness  or  injustice  in  construing  results,  a 
teacher  may  decimate  his  class  and  spread  a  con- 
sternation throughout  the  school  that  is  demoral- 
izing to  the  last  degree. 

"In  the  hands  of  an  unwise  or  unjust  teacher, 
the  examination  paper  becomes  a  sort  of  Gatlin 
gun,  mowing  down  its  score  of  hapless  victims. 
Woe  to  the  school  where  this  instrument  of  tre- 
mendous power  is  used  unwisely  or  maliciously! 
It  creates  a  secret  hostility  between  teacher  and 
pupil;  arbitrary  power,  unjustly  exercised,  is 
offset  by  tricks  and  frauds  on  the  part  of  the 
victims;  and  the  school  becomes  the  scene  of 
sorry  encounters  between  those  who  should  be 
united  by  the  ties  of  a  common  interest  and  a 
common  respect." 

There  is  another  evil  that  results  from  placing 
an  undue  importance  upon  the  final  examination. 
The  student  having  learned  that  much  or  all  de- 
pends upon  the  grade  made  in  the  final  test,  believ- 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS   OF  TEACHING  243 

mg  that  all  his  efforts,  record,  his  punctuality, 
diligence,  conduct,  assiduity  during  the  session 
now  coming  to  a  close  count  for  nought  or  at  least 
for  but  little,  beseeches  the  teacher  for  a  second 
or  a  third  trial;  either  feeling  that  if  granted 
a  fairer  test  he  can  show  an  acquaintance  with  the 
subject  or  conscious  of  his  imperfections,  he  trusts 
that  the  next  set  of  questions  may  be  on  some 
phase  of  the  subject  that  requires  less  scholarship, 
and  that  he  may  by  some  fortuitous  and  really  un- 
expected circumstance  pass  over  the  "dead  line." 

When  a  teacher  has  had  under  his  instruction  a 
class  not  too  large  for  individual  acquaintance- 
ship, for  an  entire  session,  has  noted  the  work  of 
the  pupil  from  day  to  day,  has  made  requisite 
tests,  either  oral  or  written,  during  the  year,  and 
has  conducted  the  usual  final  examination  at  the 
close  of  the  session,  and  has  by  weighing  all  the 
evidence  in  the  case,  judiciously,  justly  and  wisely 
reached  a  verdict  as  to  the  status  of  a  student,  the 
reversion  of  that  verdict  by  another  examination 
can  not  be  successfully  defended  as  soundly  peda- 
gogical. 

Seeley  says:  "A  certain  college  professor 
made  his  examinations  so  difficult  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  students  were  bound  to  fail.  A  large  part 
of  his  classes  would  leave  the  room  upon  seeing 
the  questions,  without  attempting  to  answer  them. 
As  a  consequence,  the  most  of  the  members  of  his 
classes  were  conditioned,  and  therefore,  compelled 
to  take  a  second  examination.  This,  however,  was 
always  made  so  easy  that  no  one  need  fail,  and 
thus  the  class  would  ultimately  be  advanced. ' ' 


244 


PBINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


Summary  of 
principles 
governing* 
examina- 
tions. 


In  a  case  of  this  kind,  when  a  large  part  of  the 
class  failed  they  were  justly  entitled  to  a  second 
examination,  because  there  is  no  defense  for  the 
character  of  examination  that  so  few  could  pass; 
but  the  practice  which  permits  the  reversion  of  a 
judgment  after  nine  months'  trial  and  a  rational 
examination  is  unsafe  and  it  tends  to  establish  an 
unstable  standard. 

Applicants  for  a  new  trial  in  the  courts  are  re- 
quired to  show  that  the  former  trial  in  some  im- 
portant particular  was  unfair,  or  that  the  verdict 
was  unwarranted  by  the  testimony  in  the  case. 

To  summarize  briefly,  the  chief  purpose  of  the 
final  examination  is  not,  in  general,  to  enable  t{ie 
teacher  to  reach  a  verdict  that  he  ought  to  have 
already  reached,  but  if  judiciously  used  it  may 
serve  as  his  protection ;  that  it  should  not  be  the 
controlling  factor  in  the  verdict;  that  when  used 
it  should  not  enter  a  field  not  fully  explored  dur- 
ing the  session;  that  principles  and  not  details 
should  be  stressed;  that  the  judgment  and  not 
merely  the  memory  should  be  brought  into  requisi- 
tion; that  the  examination  should  not  be  long  and 
tedious ;  that  the  questions  should  be  unambiguous 
and  legibly  written;  that  the  appearance  of  the 
question  paper  should  be  neat  and  respectable; 
that  it  should  show  evidence  of  careful,  thoughtful 
preparation;  that  it  should  be  taken  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  student  and  not  that  of  the 
teacher ;  that  the  student  remembers  all  the  facts 
he  has  met  with  is  of  less  importance  than  that 
he  has  acquired  skill  and  power  while  learning 
these  facts;  that  examination  periods  should  not 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING  245 

be  times  of  mental  and  nervous  exhaustion,  of 
anxieties,  and  heartaches ;  that  while  the  examina- 
tion should  be  so  fair,  so  just,  so  reasonable  that 
the  diligent  may  enter  it  without  apprehension,  it 
should  not  be  so  simple  and  puerile  that  the  sloven 
or  the  sluggard  may  find  it  a  passport  out  of  the 
territory  that  he  has  made  no  effort  to  possess 
or  to  explore. 

In  no  other  manner  can  a  teacher  in  so  short  a 
time  so  fully  disclose  himself  as  in  the  making  of 
a  set  of  examination  questions.  These  often  de- 
scribe  his  whole  method  of  instruction,  portray  his 
ideals,  show  whether  he  has  a  comprehensive  tloS*!u 
method  or  uses  sets  of  devices,  whether  he  elab- 
orate principles  or  drills  in  details  and  in  tech- 
nicalities, whether  he  incites  power  of  thinking  or 
skill  in  copying,  whether  his  instruction  tends  to 
produce  original  thinkers  or  servile  imitators. 

Unquestionably  it  would  be  sometimes  profit- 
able for  the  teacher  to  regard  the  examination  pa- 
pers received  from  the  students  as  his  own  exami- 
nation.  If  the  examination  has  been  properly  con- 
ceived  and  properly  conducted  it  puts  to  the  test 
the  wisdom,  the  skill,  the  efficiency  of  his  instruc-  efficiency, 
tion.  He  has  been  trying  for  several  months  to 
accomplish  a  definite  purpose,  the  material  he  has 
had  is  as  good  as  the  average  furnished  teachers 
everywhere,  the  conditions  have  been  fairly  favor- 
able, or  if  not,  he  has  known  what  the  conditions 
have  been.  He  now  makes  his  own  test  in  his  own 
way  and  the  result  ought  to  show  how  well  he  has 
done  his  work  or  in  what  he  has  failed;  and  I 
speak  from  personal  experience  when  I  say,  that 


246 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Disposition 
of  the  exami- 
nation, papers. 


Eigfhts  of  the 
student. 


in  all  my  career  as  a  teacher  I  have  never  found 
a  means  of  detecting  my  own  weak  points,  and  of 
correcting  them  afterwards,  that  has  proved  more 
genuinely  helpful  and  practical  than  the  careful 
and  critical  study  of  the  examination  papers  of 
my  own  students. 

The  examination  period  over,  what  disposition 
should  be  made  of  the  papers  of  the  students'? 

If  the  examination  has  been  of  so  great  impor- 
tance as  to  have  a  period  set  apart  to  it  and  the 
regular  work  suspended  for  it ;  if  the  teacher  has 
the  right  to  demand  this  ordeal  of  the  student, 
then  it  is  the  unquestioned  right  of  the  student 
that  whatever  he  has  written  be  read  with  that  de- 
gree of  carefulness,  patience  and  fairness,  that  he 
has  been  expected  to  exhibit  in  the  ordeal  through 
which  he  has  passed  and  to  which  the  teacher  has 
attached  so  much  importance.  No  teacher  can 
disregard  this  right  of  the  student ;  the  examina- 
tion might  in  every  other  respect  be  characterized 
by  wisdom,  fairness,  and  justice,  and  every  ele- 
ment of  merit  in  the  examination  be  annulled  by 
careless,  thoughtless  and  indifferent  work  in 
reading  and  marking  the  papers. 

The  student  has  still  another  right.  If  the  ex- 
amination has  been  given  to  disclose  the  status  of 
the  student  and  to  ascertain  the  defective  places 
in  his  work,  he  has  a  right  to  know  where  these 
defects  lie,  merely  marking  the  paper  for  the  pass- 
ing mark  is  not  enough.  Whether  the  marked  pa- 
per should  be  returned  to  the  student,  we  cannot 
now  consider,  but  the  right  of  the  student  to  know 


TESTING   THE   RESULTS   OF   TEACHING  247 

in  what  respect  lie  has  been  found  deficient,  is  un- 
questionable. 

At  a  glance  one  might  suppose  that  the  teacher 
and  the  pupil,  and  probably  the  parent  of  the  pu- 
pil, are  the  only  parties  interested  in  the  question 
of  promotion,  and  the  only  ones  affected  by  an 
unwise  or  mistaken  refusal  of  the  teacher  to  pro- 
mote him  ;  but  no  teacher  has  the  right  to  place  a 
"condition"  upon  a  pupil  as  he  advances  in  other 
departments  of  the  school  unless  the  teacher  has 
exercised  every  precaution  and  used  all  the  com- 
petent testimony  and  disregarded  all  the  irrele- 
vant and  incompetent  evidence  in  the  case. 

The  time  necessary  to  the  removal  of  conditions 
in  one  department  is  time  taken  from  what  is 
justly  due  other  departments.  The  student  loaded 
down  with  conditions  by  one  teacher  is  frequently 
prevented  on  such  account  from  doing  creditable 
work  under  several  other  teachers.  m<mt  a*?ect 


What  shall  take  the  place  of  the  formal  exami- 
nationf  Nothing  should  take  its  place.  It  should 
stay  in  its  own  place  and  perform  its  own  func- 
tions, and  not  usurp  those  of  all  other  processes, 
and  while  it  is  kept  in  its  own  place  it  should  be 
kept  sane,  sound,  rational,  and  helpful,  and  be 
made  an  inspiration  instead  of  a  nightmare  to  the 
school. 

No  one  could  recommend  the  adoption  of  the 
other  extreme  —  the  close  marking  of  every  stu-  Dailymark8 
dent  as  he  stands  in  recitation  every  day.  There 
is  no  greater  travesty  on  teaching  than  a  person 
at  one  end  of  the  room  with  class  roll  and  pencil 
in  hand  waiting  for  a  pupil  to  finish  a  sentence  to 


248 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


imperative. 


Teacher* 

aMut 
teach 


indite  opposite  his  name  some  letter,  numeral, 
hieroglyphic  or  other  symbol  indicative  of  the 
value  of  the  answer  given  by  a  student  while  mak- 
ing a  hopeless  effort  to  think  under  conditions  so 
unnatural. 

Natural  but  effective  means  of  recording  the 
daily  work  of  the  student,  frequent  tests,  whether 
ora|  or  written,  judiciously  used,  obviate  much  of 
the  evils  of  the  formal  examination;  but  after  all 
methods  are  tried,  all  experiments  made,  all  de- 
vices used,  there  is  nothing,  that  in  accomplishing 
effective  teaching  and  in  reaching  a  correct  ver- 
dict concerning  the  standing  of  the  student  can 
compare  with  an  acquaintance  with  the  student 
himself. 

Not  to  know  a  pupil  is  not  to  teach  him.  The 
teacher  who  being  asked  by  the  parent  at  the  end 
of  a  session  of  nine  months  how  his  child  has  pro- 
gressed, must  refer  to  the  books  before  answering, 
admits  failure  in  one  of  the  vital  processes  of  edu- 
cation. 

Should  the  teacher  urge  the  impossibility  of 
learning  all  the  students  of  large  classes,  he  but 
confesses  his  own  limitations  and  admits  that  the 
number  he  can  really  teach  is  comparatively 
small. 

Unquestionably  some  teachers  can  instruct 
greater  numbers  than  others;  some  men  make  ex- 
cellent  captains  of  companies,  but  can  never  suc- 
ceed as  commanders  of  regiments  ;  but  the  teacher 
who  will  systematically  study  how  to  learn  his  pu- 
pils, how  to  learn  large  classes  of  students,  who 
will  recognize  that  it  is  as  much  his  duty  to  learn 


TESTING  THE  RESULTS   OF   TEACHING  249 

the  student  as  that  of  the  student  to  learn  the  text 
book,  will  soon  have  his  capacity  for  learning  per- 
sons multiplied  beyond  his  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions. The  teacher  who  can  no  more  than  call  the 
student  by  name,  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
one  who  has  not  learned  to  do  even  that  much. 

Payne  says  again: 

"In  very  large  classes,  it  may  be  said,  individ- 
ual instruction  becomes  impossible,  and  many  fail- 
ures, are  the  consequence;  but  evidently  these 
pupils  lacks  opportunity  through  no  fault  of  their 
own ;  either  their  progress  should  be  slower  in  or- 
der that  it  may  be  surer,  or  the  severity  of  the 
examination  should  be  modified.  A  large  per  cent 
of  failures  in  examination  is  proof  positive  of  poor 
work  at  some  point  on  the  part  of  the  instructor." 

A  serious  problem  of  the  teacher  then,  who  goes  Teacher 

.     ,  IT-          i  •   i    j-1         i  i  •  anemia  learn 

into  a  school  in  which  the  classes  are  large,  is  to 
learn  how  to  conduct  large  classes,  to  learn  many 
names  and  faces,  dispositions  and  natures,  and 
failing  to  do  so  not  to  charge  his  failure  on  the 
student's  side  of  the  ledger  but  to  admit  his  limi- 
tations and  treat  the  student  accordingly. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


The  old  and 
the  new  view 
of  school 
discipline. 


Tlie  old  view 
cf  the  child. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 

The  Modern  View  of  School  Discipline.— In  the 

preceding  chapters  frequent  mention  is  made 
of  the  changes  that  have  been  wrought  in  recent 
years  in  all  the  arts  and  activities  of  modern  life, 
but  nowhere  else  has  there  been  a  more  complete 
transformation  than  in  the  modes  and  the  motives 
of  school  discipline. 

The  old  method  repressed  the  spontaneity  of  the 
child,  the  new  encourages  and  directs  it  into  ways 
of  usefulness. 

Old  books  on  the  methods  of  school  government 
were  devoted  largely  to  the  enumeration  of  rules, 
regulations,  and  modes  of  punishing  the  unlucky 
pupil  who,  wittingly  or  unwittingly  transgressed 
the  law  of  the  school  or  refused  to  respect 
authority. 

The  old  method  was  based  upon  the  theory  of 
the  child's  innate  depravity ;  the  new  method  upon 
its  possibilities.  In  former  times  the  reputedly 
good  disciplinarian  was  he  who  detected  the  great- 
est number  of  infractions  of  rules,  devised  for  vio- 
lated law  the  greatest  variety  of  penalties,  and 
who  was  also  the  most  relentless  in  the  infliction 
of  punishment. 

Modern  society  has  moderated  the  severity  of 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  251 

punishment  of  criminals  guilty  of  almost  all 
offenses,  and  both  the  school  and  the  home  have 
ceased  to  regard  the  child  as  a  culprit  whose  tend- 
encies are  all  towards  evil. 

The  Purpose  of  Discipline.— The  chief  ends  of 
discipline  and  all  other  phases  of  school  govern- 
ment are  the  development  in  the  pupil  of  the  ca- 
pacity for  self-control ;  to  inculcate  in  him  the  love 
of  the  right  and  the  will  to  choose  it  when  immedi- 
ate stimulus  and  natural  impulse  strongly  impel 
him  towards  a  different  choice;  to  lead  him  to 
trust  and  respect  himself,  and  to  accord  cheerfully 
to  others  their  rights  and  privileges ;  in  short,  the 
ultimate  end  of  school  government  is  the  develop- 
ment of  character. 

To  be  more  specific  or  concrete  we  may  say : 

1.     There  must  be  order  in  the  school  during  the 
daily  exercises  and  comparative  quiet  during  the  Necessity  for 
study  periods.    When  the  pupil  is  taught  to  find  order* 
and  to  keep  his  own  place  in  the  school-room  and 
on  the  play-ground,  not  to  obtrude  where  he  does 
not  belong  or  interfere  with  other  pupils  in  the 
performance  of  their  work  or  in  their  play,  he  is 
being  trained  to  conform  to  conditions  imposed  by 
law,  society,  or  convention,  and  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  intelligent  citizenship. 

No  one  need  expect  that  order  in  any  school  will 
be  at  all  times  perfect.  So  long  as  human  nature 
is  human  nature  there  will  be  jars,  disputes,  quar- 
rels and  conflicts  among  individuals  whose  inter- 
ests or  opinions  clash  in  their  work  or  in  their 
play.  These  conflicts  are  inevitable.  In  fact,  they 
denote  virility  and  their  occurrence  is  by  no  means 


252 


PRINCIPLES  AKD  PEOCESSES 


Tfce  work  of 
tlie  pupil 
must  "be 
required. 


The  elements 

controllinsr 

power. 


Willpower. 


a  symptom  of  degeneracy  into  savagery.  The 
teacher  should  expect  some  outbursts,  and  if  he 
is  wise  he  anticipates  them,  is  prepared  for  them 
before  they  come,  grasps  the  situation  and  re- 
stores order  calmly  and  quietly  and  reduces  to  a 
mere  ripple  what  might,  if  injudiciously  managed, 
have  developed  into  a  maelstrom. 

2.  The  work  assigned  the  student  must  be  done. 
Habits  of  indolence  and  procrastination  must  be 
prevented.  The  school-room  should  be  a  busy 
place  where  every  one  is  intent  on  some  phase  of 
school  work.  Earnestness  and  animation  should 
mark  every  moment  of  the  study  hour,  and  the 
recess  period  should  not  have  a  loafer  or  a  loiterer 
on  the  play-ground. 

Elements  of  Efficient  Control — The  responsibil- 
ity for  school  government  devolves  upon  the 
teacher.  Though  he  may  have  many  other  essen- 
tial qualifications  of  the  true  teacher,  a  blunder  in 
government  is  sometimes  disastrous.  Some  qual- 
ities of  mind  and  disposition  are  indispensable  to 
the  teacher  in  the  discipline  of  the  school. 

1.  Will  power  is  necessary  to  control  a  school. 
A  vacillating  teacher  fails  to  inspire  respect  for 
his  authority.    The  guiding  hand  should  be  gentle, 
but  it  must  be  always  firm.    The  teacher  should 
be  at  all  times  deliberate  even  in  what  may  be  to 
him  a  trifling  matter,  but  when  he  has  rendered 
his  decision,  it  should  not  be  reversed  through  ca- 
jolery or  blandishment  of  the  pupils. 

2.  Self-control  is  imperative  if  the  teacher  con- 
trols others.    Anger  is  always  an  unmistakable 
sign  of  weakness.    Trifles  ought  not  to  be  allowed 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  253 

to  disturb  the  teacher's  equanimity.  To  be  an- 
noyed by  infractions  of  regulations  or  discon- 
certed by  unpleasant  occurrences  is  evidence  of  self  control, 
shallowness  of  character.  The  brook  makes  a 
great  ado  over  the  stone  that  is  thrown  into  its 
path,  but  when  a  boulder  is  dropped  into  its  chan- 
nel the  mighty  river  flows  smoothly  on.  Irritabil- 
ity on  the  part  of  the  teacher  begets  among  the 
pupils  disorder,  inquietude  and  uncertainty  that 
render  effective  work  extremely  difficult. 

3.  The  teacher  should  be  rich  in  sympathy.    In 

more  senses  than  one  he  is  in  loco  parentis.  He  sympathy, 
should  be  helpful  in  all  the  youthful  ambitions  and 
undertakings  and  a  refuge  in  time  of  trouble  and 
misfortune.  The  teacher  to  whom  his  pupils  can 
come  confidently  when  in  trouble  or  even  in  dis- 
grace has  very  nearly  solved  the  problem  of  dis- 
cipline. 

4.  The   teacher   should  have   self-confidence. 
Self-confidence  is  not  egotism.     An  egotistical 
teacher  is  a  misfit,  but  self-confidence  is  a  convic- 
tion, depending  upon  past  preparation  and  experi- 
ence that  he  can  accomplish  what  he  undertakes. 
Self-confidence  begets  that  composure  and  equa- 
nimity of  mind  that  inspires  the  confidence  of  fence.0*1 
others  and  make  them  willing  to  be  directed. 

5.  The  teacher  should  be  candid.    The  young 
child  entrusted  to  the  direction  of  a  hypocritical 
teacher  is  unfortunate.    The  tragedy  of  it  is  that 
the  child  soon  looks  under  the  mask  and  discovers 
the  sham  and  begins  early  in  life  to  distrust 
everybody  and  to   dissemble  himself,   repaying 
deceit  with  deception. 


254 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PEOCESSES 


School  regula- 
tion*. 


Principles 

governing- 

school 

regulations. 


School  Regulations. — In  any  organization  of 
individuals  some  sort  of  regulations  is  necessary. 
Societies  have  their  by-laws,  clubs  their  constitu- 
tions, state  legislatures  are  constantly  enacting 
laws,  all  for  the  purpose  of  defining  the  rights  of 
members  or  of  citizens,  giving  limitations  to  priv- 
ileges and  for  determining  by  fine,  penalty  or  pun- 
ishment the  refractory  or  the  criminal.  It  is  nec- 
essary that  any  school  have  well  defined  regula- 
tions ;  that  these  regulations  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  teachers  and  students.  The  nature  of 
the  regulations  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon 
the  grade  of  the  school,  its  method  of  instruction, 
whether  the  departmental  plan  is  used ;  or  whether 
the  students  are  mostly  boarders. 

The  principles  governing  the  nature  of  the  regu- 
lations are,  however,  the  same  for  all  classes  of 
schools. 

1.  Regulations  should  be  positive  rather  than 
negative.    It  is  better  to  require  truthfulness  than 
to   forbid   lying;    to    demand   attendance   upon 
classes  than  to  condemn  wilful  absence. 

2.  Eegulations  should  be  reasonable  and  their 
necessity  should  be  obvious  to  the  pupils. 

3.  Eegulations,  when  possible,  should  be  gen- 
eral rather  than  particular,  but  when  occasions 
arise  for  specific  regulations,  they  should  be  made, 
and  the  necessity  for  them  explained. 

Enforcement  of  Regulations. — All  regulations 
should  be  enforced.  It  is  not  the  province  of  the 
pupils  to  discriminate  among  them,  deciding  which 
ought  to  be,  and  which  need  not  be,  obeyed.  No 
regulation  that  can  not  be  satisfactorily  enforced 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT  255 

should  be  promulgated,  but  when  once  promul- 
gated it  should  be  enforced  or  repealed. 

The  best  general  means  of  securing  compliance 
with  school  regulations  by  the  pupils  is  to  furnish  Meangof  en. 
them  an  abundance  of  work  and  play,  rationally  JSSm?."^" 
divided.    Most  of  the  disorder  and  disobedience 
in  the  school  is  the  result  of  lack  of  employment. 
Pupils  who  are  busy  and  interested  in  the  work 
of  the  class-room,  gymnasium,  the  workshop,  or 
the  play-ground  are  seldom  troublesome  on  ac- 
count of  misconduct 

The  cultivation  of  proper  incentives,  leading  to 
a  broader  view  of  school  life,  is  an  effective  means 
of  raising  the  standard  of  conduct  and  infusing  a 
spirit  of  conformity  to  principles  of  justice  and 
reason. 

By  all  proper  means,  by  the  reading  or  telling 
of  stories  to  young  pupils,  by  lectures  with  bio- 
graphical illustrations  to  older  ones,  with  constant 
illustrations  by  ^example  to  those  of  all  ages,  the 
best  ideals  of  life  and  of  conduct  ought  to  be  pre- 
sented with  sufficient  frequency  to  make  this  fea- 
ture of  education  prominent  in  the  school. 

When  appeal  to  honor  and  to  the  higher  ideals 
of  life  prove  ineffectual  in  individual  cases,  then 
a  resort  to  penalties  becomes  necessary. 

Penalties  and  Punishment. — The  object  of  pun- 
ishment is  to  reform  the  offender  and  to  set  an 
example  for  others.  Unless  some  penalty  were  Penaltlet 
imposed  for  violation  of  regulations,  the  regula- 
tions themselves  would  be  in  many  cases  inert  and 
useless. 

Principles  Governing  Punishment. — 1.      Penal- 


256 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Reproof,  rep. 
rimand,  and 
suspension. 


ties  should  be  more  certain  than  severe.  It  is  the 
certainty  of  punishment  that  deters  those  inclined 
to  be  law-breakers.  Punishment  that  is  too  severe 
will  not  receive  the  approval  of  the  school,  and  it, 
therefore,  tends  to  create  a  spirit  of  antagonism 
between  teacher  and  pupil. 

2.  There  should  be  a  sequence  between  the 
offense  and  the  penalty.       For  example,  wilful 
absence  for  recitation — " cutting  class" — should 
be  punished  by  recording  the  grade  of  zero  for 
the  recitation,  and  requiring  the  offender  to  re- 
produce the  lesson  at  some  future  time. 

3.  The    penalty    for    violation    of    privileges 
should  be  the  withdrawal  of  the  privilege.    For  ex- 
ample, the  student  who  conducts  himself  improp- 
erly, is  quarrelsome,  or  uses  indecent  language 
on  the  play-ground,  should  be  denied  the  privilege 
of  the  grounds  until  there  is  some  assurance  that 
the  reprehensible  conduct  will  not  be  repeated.    If 
the  general  conduct  of  the  student  has  been  such 
that  appeal  to  higher  motive,  reproof,  or  repri- 
mand fails,  suspension  of  the  privilege  of  the 
school,  class-room,  and  play-ground  may  have  the 
effect  desired. 

Among  small  children,  reproof,  reprimand,  and 
sympathetic  direction  seldom  fail,  even  when  the 
conduct  has  been  extremely  reprehensible.  In  this 
the  child  is  the  main  one  to  bef  considered.  In 
schools  for  adults  the  school  itself  must  also  be 
considered;  and  when  the  conduct  exhibits  gross 
moral  turpitude  it  is  unsafe  to  trust  to  any  re- 
medial punishment,  and  it  is  best  for  the  school 
that  the  offender  be  required  to  sever  all  relations 
with  it. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN  EDUCATION 

Nothing  impresses  more  vividly  upon  one  the 
accomplished  revolution  in  educational  thinking 
than  the  changed  conception  of  the  place  of  play 
in  the  school.  Play  is  the  universal  phenomenon  of  yOT 
of  youth.  It  is  one  of  the  earlier  instincts  to  de- 
velop in  the  child  (due  perhaps  to  a  generous  sup- 
ply of  nourishment  furnished  by  the  parent).  It 
is  likely  to  cease  later  in  life,  when  the  struggle 
for  existence  and  the  altruistic  effort  to  supply 
one's  dependents  render  greater  economy  of  effort 
necessary.  The  instinct  of  play  immoderately  in- 
dulged after  such  economy  has  become  necessary, 
and  so  leading  to  individual  want  or  the  suffering 
of  dependents,  has  naturally  and  correctly  been 
condemned  as  a  vice. 

But  going  beyond  the  limits  of  legitimate  infer- 
ence, the  adherents  of  the  ascetic  ideal  in  educa- 
tion, who  have  believed  in  producing  the  perfect    hinesecllil 
man  by  lopping  off  whatever  is  superfluous  or  re-  aren  »eidom 
prehensible  have  been  anxious  to  quell  the  instinct  B 
of  play  as  an  activity  ill  befitting  one  engaged  in 
the  serious  occupation  of  gaining  an  education. 
This  is  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  Chinese  school- 
boy, who  never  plays.    For  centuries  monk  and 
Puritan  have  frowned  on  play,  but  it  has  been 
either  a  bitter  victory  or  a  vain  fight. 

A  different  tendency  in  education,  which  must 


258 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Impetus  to 
play  lay 
Sousseau. 


Modern  at- 
titude  toward 
play,  sympa- 
thetic. 


Two  kind* 
of  play. 


The  child 
imitates. 


have  originated  wherever  parents  found  their 
sweetest  music  in  their  children's  laughter,  was 
gathered  and  given  form  and  impetus  by  the  vol- 
canic genius  of  Eosseau.  It  declared  that  the  nat- 
ural, and  that  alone,  was  good,  because  God  had 
made  it,  whereas,  man,  by  his  ignorant  zqal, 
spoiled  all  he  mistakingly  sought  to  improve. 
Pestalozzi  and  his  followers  continued  the  argu- 
ment, setting  forth  that  development,  and  not 
pruning,  is  the  normal  educational  process,  hence, 
while  play  might  be  directed,  it  should  by  no 
means  be  stopped.  Froebel  systematized  play  in 
education,  and  gave  it  a  philosophical  basis. 
Marie  Montessori  would  guide  the  free  activity, 
which  is  the  innermost  characteristic  of  play,  into 
eduactional  aspect  by  furnishing  proper  materials 
and  conditions. 

Lighted  by  the  results  of  recent  research  into 
the  nature  of  the  child,  the  modern  attitude  to- 
ward play  is  in  general  decidedly  sympathetic.  It 
is  easy  to  distinguish  two  kinds  of  play.  The  first 
is  the  play  that  rehearses  the  experiences  of  our 
ancestors.  As  the  child  is  in  many  ways  only  a 
recapitulation  of  the  past,  so  the  natural  path  of 
discharge  of  his  energy  is  in  the  line  of  ancestral 
activities.  Thus  war  and  the  chase  were  the  an- 
cient counterparts  of  football,  "tag,"  and  " hide- 
and-seek,  "  and  all  their  variations. 

In  the  other  kind  of  play,  equally  distinctive,  the 
child  imitates  what  he  sees  adults  do.  Everyone 
can  recall  numerous  examples  of  this.  By  these 
two  phases  of  play  activity,  drawn  from  the  past 
and  the  present,  the  child  is  ever  fitting  himself 


PLAY   AND   ATHLETICS   IN   EDUCATION  259 

for  the  place  he  is  to  fill  in  the  future.  The  child 
that  does  not  play  loafs  just  as  much  as  the  man 
that  does  not  work.  Hence,  the  significance  of  the 
modern  epigram,  "The  child  without  a  play- 
ground is  the  father  of  the  man  without  a  job." 
There  are  those  who  prefer  to  fear  the  effect  of 
play  on  the  serious  work  of  the  school,  and  to 
scorn  the  modern  attention  to  play  as  an  exhi- 
bition of  "soft  pedagogy."  Perhaps  this  comes 
from  a  superficial  view  of  play  as  of  a  single  nat- 
ure and  contrasted  with  work,  whereas,  really  it 
is  of  a  twofold  nature,  with  both  aspects  most  in- 
timately related  to  work.  If  all  activity  is 
abstractly  divided  into  work  and  play,  we  may 
say  that  with  work  there  is  always  some  ulterior 
result  that  is  looked  upon  as  the  reward  for  it, 
while  in  play  the  activity  itself  is  its  own  suffi- 
cient reward.  It  is  readily  observed  that  in  real- 
ity the  distinction  is  by  no  means  clear,  but  most 
concrete  activities  have  some  of  both  elements. 

A  diagram  may  help  to  make  clear  the  two  kinds 
of  play  and  their  relations  to  work.    Let  the  space 

between  the  curve 
D  K  E  and  the  rec- 
tangular axes  X  X' 
and  Y  Y'  represent 
activity,  and  the 
rectangle  W  0  E  K 
represent  work.  Jiay!Eaaa 
Then  the  remaining 
space,  representing 
play  activity,  is  divided  into  two  parts,  a 
lower  part  at  the  right  of  the  rectangle,  which 


260  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

we  may  call  sporty  and  an  upper  one  above 
the  rectangle,  that  we  may  denominate  art. 
As  civilization  has  progressed  the  rectangle 
WORK  has  shortened  its  base  and  increased  its 
altitude ;  that  is,,  it  has  dropped  off  many  of  the 
activities  now  known  as  sport,  and  has  incorpo- 
rated, little  by  little,  territory  from  the  realm  of 
the  artistic.  Then  while  the  sports,  real  or  con- 
ventionalized as  games,  link  us  to  the  past  the 
arts  open  up  to  us  the  future  of  civilization.  By 
the  use  of  sports  we  add  strength  to  our  bodies, 
as  Antaeus  renewed  his  by  falling  back  upon  the 
earth,  and  by  the  use  of  art  we  increase  the 
vitality  of  our  souls.  The  singing  and  the  music, 
whether  in  performance  or  passive  enjoyment,  the 
art  work  of  the  pupils,  their  enjoyment  of  school- 
room decoration  and  the  architecture  of  the  school 
building  and  school  grounds,  all  alike  are  a  part 
of  the  play  activity.  Huxley  refers  to  "the  great 
source  of  pleasure  without  alloy,  the  serene  rest- 
ing place  for  worn  human  nature — the  world  of 
art/'  as  a  frequently  neglected  field  of  education. 
Yet,  while  this  realm  is  worthy  of  attention,  it  is 
the  realm  of  sport  that  at  present  commands  the 
deep  concern  of  educators.  A  restatement  of  the 
school  values  of  play  may  be  of  service  in  classi- 
fying the  further  discussion. 

Aside  from  the  fundamental  culture  value  of 
play,  indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  play 
has  several  other  distinct  values. 

The  great  natural  obstacle  to  the  teaching 
process  is  fatigue.  It  is  caused  probably  by  the 
physiological  changes,  both  physical  and  chemical, 


PLAY  AND   ATHLETICS  IN   EDUCATION  261 

in  the  structure,  the  blood  supply  and  blood  com- 
position, and  perhaps  other  factors,  unknown  or 
ill  understood,  in  the  brain  areas  that  serve  in  values  m 
some  mysterious  way  as  the  basis  for  mental  p 
activity.  When  study  has  continued  till  a  state 
of  fatigue  is  reached,  attention  is  difficult  to 
secure  and  maintain ;  or,  as  we  say,  interest  flags. 
If,  now,  considerable  vital  energy  is  present,  and 
he  who  eats  and  breathes  will  have  it  present,  it 
tends  to  find  expression  through  some  other 
channels,  usually  the  surreptitious  ones  known  as 
mischief.  To  restore  the  mental  balance  by  rest- 
ing the  wearied  tracts  and  by  working  off  the 
surplus  energy  in  the  relatively  unused  area, 
nothing  is  so  efficacious  as  the  free  play  of  the 
recreation  period.  The  beneficent  effect  will  be 
noted  in  the  easy  order  of  the  succeeding  period, 
and  the  folly  of  " keeping  in"  for  restlessness  is 
thereby  made  obvious.  This  may  be  called  the 
disciplinary  value  of  play.  Play  in  this  sense  may 
be  regarded  as  a  moral  prophylactic  against  mis- 
chief, somewhat  as  Aristotle  over  two  thousand 
years  ago  regarded  music. 

Again,  the  social  way  of  education,  the  devel- 
opment, training,  and  information  one  gains  by 
living  with  one's  fellows,  is  greatly  furthered  by 
play.  Often  in  the  history  of  education,  when  the 
method  has  been  outrageous,  and  the  subject 
matter  has  been  worthless,  as  in  the  medieval 
universities  and  the  " English  public  schools"  of 
the  eighteenth  and  the  early  nineteenth  century, 
the  meeting  and  mingling  of  students  has  saved 
the  day  for  culture.  The  saying  that  the  battle 


262 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Defects  in 
character 
disclosed  in 
play. 


Health  value 
of  play. 


of  Waterloo  was  won  on  the  cricket  field  at  Eton 
points  out  a  real  truth.  The  qualities  of  leader- 
ship and  loyalty,  keenness  of  mental  activity, 
persistence,  regard  for  others,  relative  values,  all 
may  be  cultivated  on  the  playground. 

The  hidden  flaws  of  character  become  appar- 
ent in  play,  and  are  subject  to  elimination  in  the 
democracy  of  the  play-ground.  Public  sentiment 
is  a  powerful  factor  for  denouncing  meanness  and 
exposing  its  ugliness,  and  for  enforcing  righteous- 
ness in  juvenile  as  in  adult  society.  "Fair  play" 
belongs  to  the  terminology  of  both. 

The  single  health  value  of  play  is  not  to  be 
overlooked.  Of  course,  neither  the  school  nor  the 
occupations  therein  ought  to  be  detrimental  to  the 
pupil's  health,  yet  it  is  feared  they  often  are. 
Therefore,  it  is  essential  to  provide  for  periodic 
vigorous  exercise  in  the  undefiled  oxygenated  air 
of  the  outdoors,  preferably  stimulated  by  the  emo- 
tion of  play.  Particularly  is  this  necessary  for 
the  one  who  is  "good  at  his  books,"  whose  mind 
needs  a  sturdy  body  to  support  it  for  proper  use- 
fulness in  the  world.  Such  a  child  is  only  too 
likely  to  neglect  healthful  exercise,  unless  he  is 
led  to  it  by  the  social  feelings  engendered  by  the 
game.  Certain  games  and  plays  that  by  bravado 
and  youthful  recklessness  have  been  developed 
to  a  state  where  they  themselves  are  dangerous  to 
health,  at  least  for  a  part  of  the  children,^  need  to 
be  very  carefully  watched. 

For  these  reasons  ample  provision  should  be 
made  for  play  in  every  school  or  other  center  of 
child  life.  The  seriousness  of  the  problem  of 


PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN  EDUCATION  263 

human  congestion  in  our  large  cities  is  perhaps 
more  impressive  in  respect  to  the  poverty  of 
opportunity  for  children's  play  than  in  any  other 
way.  The  making  of  play-grounds  on  the  roofs  »aaefor 
of  New  York  City  schools  compels  admiration  for 
its  ingenuity,  but  is  nevertheless  pitiful.  The  late 
order  in  the  metropolis  of  fencing  off  certain 
streets,  by  blocks,  from  traffic  from  three  to  six 
in  the  afternoon  so  that  children  may  play,  is  well 
conceived. 

Fortunately,  in  most  of  the  country  a  little  fore- 
thought will  secure  sufficient  space  for  play  as 
well  as  sunlight  and  air.  When  land  values  get  space  needed, 
high  in  a  community,  there  may  be  an  inclination 
to  economize  in  regard  to  space,  which  is  not  un- 
natural to  the  business  men  on  a  school  board. 
For  this  reason  school  boards  in  many  progres- 
sive communities  look  ahead  for  school  sites  in  the 
direction  of  growth,  while  land  is  yet  cheap.  The 
very  fact  of  such  ownership  has  a  very  appreci- 
able real  estate  value,  so  it  is  generally  facilitated 
by  the  promoters. 

The  beautification  of  the  premises,  while  im- 
portant, must  not  be  permitted  to  infringe  on  the 
space  for  play.  The  finest  ornament  to  any  school 
ground  is  a  group  of  happy,  healthy  children  en- 
gaged in  play. 

While  space  is  the  first  essential,  apparatus  for 
play  may  also  be  valuable.  What  there  is  had 
better  be  simple  and  safe  than  ornate  and  com- 
plex. The  swing,  the  see-saw,  the  giant  stride, 
and  the  slide,  are  common  forms  that  solve  the 
entertainment  problem  for  some.  Courts  for 


264 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Athletics, 
organized 
play. 


Difficulties. 


tennis,  volley  ball,  and  basket  ball,  will  help  for 
others.  With  all  these  there  must  go  constant 
supervision,  close  but  tactfully  unf elt,  that  on  the 
one  hand,  the  abuses  of  selfishness  and  rowdyism 
may  not  creep  in,  nor  on  the  other,  that  the  spon- 
taniety,  which  is  half  the  charm  of  play,  be  not 
crushed. 

More  reliance  must  be  put  on  the  organization 
of  free  games  in  which  less  skill  is  demanded  and 
greater  numbers  can  participate.  "Prisoners' 
base,"  "pom-pom-pull  away,"  "cross-tag," 
"wood-tag,"  and  many  others  established  by  law 
in  the  kingdom  of  childhood,  are  good  for  this 
purpose.  The  presence  of  a  teacher  or  other 
guardian  is  absolutely  necessary,  both  to  make 
the  play  safe  and  to  make  it  educative  physically 
and  morally. 

Athletics  is  organized  play,  generally  for  older 
students.  It  differs  from  the  play  of  the  younger 
children  mainly  in  the  more  formal  and  rigid  rules 
made  necessary  by  the  greater  importance  given 
to  the  principle  of  competition,  as  well  as  by  the 
greater  strength  of  the  participants.  The  argu- 
ment underlying  athletics  is  otherwise  not  differ- 
ent from  the  principles  of  play  in  general,  though 
it  is  often  discussed  as  if  it  were  something  dis- 
tinct and  apart.  This  has  led  to  a  confusion  of 
thought  where  clearness  is  very  essential. 

The  difficulties  involved  in  the  problem  of  ath- 
letics in  connection  with  modern  education  are 
caused  chiefly  by  the  entrance  of  commercialism 
into  the  case.  In  this  respect  athletics  differs  not 
a  whit  from  a  number  of  other  phases  of  our  civ- 


PLAY  AND   ATHLETICS   IN   EDUCATION  265 

ilized  life,  where  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  of 
all  evil. 

That  whoever  works  faithfully  should  play  joy- 
fully is  only  an  inevitable  inference  from  the  uni- 
versal law  of  rhymth,  of  which  day  and  night, 
summer  and  winter,  ebb  and  tide,  are  larger 
examples.  In  student  life,  the  vices  of  solitude 
and  the  coarse  forms  of  rowdyism  known  as  haz- 
ing, are  the  results  of  the  neglect  of  open  play. 
Hence,  athletics  should  be  organized  to  affect 
every  student  in  school.  Difficulties  will  be  met 
in  the  realization  of  this  ideal.  The  student  who 
works  his  way  may  be  forced  to  sacrifice  his  play 
to  his  purpose.  The  student  whose  physical  con- 
dition in  some  point  deviates  from  the  normal, 
must  search  out  for  himself  a  form  of  play  that 
will  not  be  dangerous.  This  will  require  expert  Btudettts< 
physical  examination  and  diagnosis,  accompanied 
by  advice  of  highest  professional  quality.  No 
form  of  play  that  is  for  the  normal  person  dan- 
gerous to  health,  limb,  or  life,  should  be  tolerated. 
If  the  dangerous  features  can  not  be  eliminated 
by  revision  of  rules,  it  is  far  better  to  eliminate 
that  form  of  play  as  a  whole.  The  plea  that  some- 
thing is  needed  to  develop  and  exercise  physical 
courage  in  this  generation  will  hardly  seem  valid 
in  the  face  of  irreparable  loss. 

Athletics  is  generally  distinguished  as  games 
and  "track  work."  The  latter  consists  of  inde-  Tfcackwo 
pendent  events,  in  which  individuals  compete  with 
other  individuals  for  excellence  or  supremacy  in 
some  form  of  specialized  physical  endeavor. 
Various  forms  of  track  work  are,  running  for 


266         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

different  distances  from  fifty  yards  to  two  miles ; 
jumping,  both  "standing"  and  "running,"  and 
both  * '  high ' '  and  ' '  broad ' ' ;  pole  vaulting ;  throw- 
ing of  hammer  or  discus,  and  "putting"  the 
twelve  or  sixteen  pound  "shot";  and  perhaps 
others,  with  modifications  and  combinations.  In 
all  of  these,  "form"  is  the  accomplishment  of 
greatest  concern,  that  is,  the  particular  manner  of 
performance  in  which  experience  and  science  have 
proved  the  body  can  most  economically  and  effec- 
tively exert  itself  toward  the  goal  desired.  This 
will  generally  be  the  most  graceful  way,  for  grace 
is  only  economy  of  effort  in  movement.  A  contest 
in  track  work,  generally  called  a  "meet,"  does 
not  assume  the  nature  of  a  conflict,  for  the  oppo- 
nents are  really  not  persons  but  performances. 
There  is  yet  the  danger  of  over-exertion,  which 
danger  can  be  reduced  by  regulation  and  compe- 
tent physical  examination. 

In  late  years  track  work  has  received  a  needed 
i?stirc8Cllo~  and  deserved  impetus  from  the  organization  of 
interscholastic  athletic  leagues  for  holding  meets 
by  counties  and  districts,  with  a  climax  of  inter- 
est in  a  state  meet,  a  system  susceptible  of  devel- 
opment to  great  usefulness.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  plan  permits  a  number  of  contesting  units  to 
strive  simultaneously,  lessening  the  intensity  of 
partisanship,  and  permitting  a  greater  variety  of 
results.  This  variety  will  increase  with  the 
growth  of  interest  in  the  work  in  the  local  units, 
which  need  not  necessarily  be  large.  The  inter- 
national "Olympic  games"  were  in  a  way  to 
accomplish  as  much  for  world  wide  civilization  as 


PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN  EDUCATION  267 

they  did  for  the  early  Greek  culture.  Perhaps 
it  was  not  mere  coincidence  that  these  two  mani- 
festations of  interest  in  this  form  of  athletics  were 
simultaneous. 

One  difficulty  in  track  work  has  been  that  a  man 
of  fine  physique  could  compete  successfully  in  a 
number  of  contests,  which  would  discourage  others 
from  entering.  It  is  suggested  that  each  contest-  to  one  event, 
ant  be  forced  to  limit  his  choice  to  a  certain  event, 
or  to  one  event  in  each  form,  as  the  hundred  yard 
dash  and  the  standing  broad  jump,  etc.  Then  it 
is  believed,  more  would  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the 
occasion,  and  the  benefits  would  be  multiplied. 

However,  the  track  work  has  as  yet  been  con- 
sidered a  minor  part  of  athletics.  The  annual 
"field  day"  at  a  college  or  school  is  usually  a 
very  tame  affair,  when  compared  with  the  "big 
games. " 

And  it  is  with  the  games  that  the  state  of  per- 
plexity enters  the  problem.    The  principal  games 
.  are  football  in  the  fall,  basket  ball  in  winter,  and  The  principal 
baseball  in  the  spring.      Because  the  first  men-  **" 
tioned  game  has  achieved  a  popularity  beyond 
that  of  both  the  others,  the  discussion  following 
will  apply  particularly  to  football. 

The  perplexity  begins  when  the  ideal  in  ath- 
letics is,  to  have  a  "winning  team."     The  real  xaeai should 
"games"  are  only  with  like  teams  from  sister 
institutions.    Whatever  playing  is  otherwise  done  * 
at  home  is  only  "practice."    Most  of  the  work  in 
practice,  however,  is  in  the  elements  of  the  game, 
such  as  "tackling"  a  dummy,  and  is  essentially 
a  matter  of  drudgery.    In  order  to  have  a  winning 


268         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

team,  it  is  necessary  to  have  good  material,  hence 
preparatory  schools  are  scoured  for  men  with 
promising  brawn  and  agility.  Students  of  suit- 
able physical  build,  who  have  entered  school  for 
the  serious  purpose  of  study,  are  teased  and 
wheedled  into  "coming  out."  Generally  the 
glamor  of  " making  the  team"  is  a  sufficient  lure. 
Still,  to  produce  a  winning  team  of  the  best  mate- 
rial and  equipment,  requires  a  skilled  trainer  or 
"coach,"  or  perhaps  a  force  of  coaches.  These 
study  the  game  "scientifically"  and  plan  "stra- 
tegical plays,"  "formations,"  and  other  concep- 
tions of  military  flavor.  The  plays  are  practiced 
with  secret  signals  most  assiduously,  till  the  for- 
mations become  automatic  and  the  team  plays  as 
one  man. 

Then  the  "players"  must  be  inured  to  strenu- 
ous effort  by  persistent  training,  which  will 
require  several  hours  of  hard  daily  work. 
Further,  the  members  of  the  team  must  be  cared 
for  physically,  fed  on  special  diet,  to  bring  out 
each  man's  maximum  efficiency. 

All  this  is  very  expensive,  therefore,  the  games 
must  be  made  to  pay.  A  season's  program  or 
schedule  is  made  up.  Contracts  to  play  with 
other  teams  are  made,  specifying  conditions  and 
considerations.  Season  tickets  and  tickets  for 
individual  games  are  sold.  A  high  fence  shuts  out 
the  impecunious.  "Grand  stands"  and  "bleach- 
ers" provide  more  or  less  comfortable  seating 
facilities  for  cash.  The  people,  alumni,  students, 
and  citizens  must  be  brought  in  order  that  ex- 
penses may  be  met.  The  result  is  a  game  that 


PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN  EDUCATION  269 

is  a  social  event  of  the  first  magnitude.  The 
successful  team  is  glorified  and  adulated.  The 
defeated  team  explains  the  best  it  can  how  it 
happened,  and  plans  to  retrieve  its  misfortune 
next  year. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  athletics  of  this  form 
has  a  certain  social  value.  The  spirit  of  loyalty 
to  one's  group  is  one  of  the  fundamental  concep- 
tions of  modern  ethics,  the  group  being  extensive 
with  the  individual's  breadth  of  vision  to  include 
his  family  or  the  universe.  This  loyalty,  athletics 
undoubtedly  fosters  in  a  college  and  a  college 
town. 

When  a  school  can  have  a  winning  team  without 
dishonesty,  it  probably  has  " clean  athletics." 
But  the  temptation  is  strong,  when  conditions  are 
otherwise.  It  is  also  to  be  found  that  frequently 
the  game  provides  easy  opportunity  for  gambling, 
with  the  usual  consequent  demoralization. 

An  objection  has  been  urged  against  the  great 
amount  of  preparation  and  the  expense  necessary  Toofewstu. 
to  produce  a  winning  team,  and  that  the  great 
majority  of  students  take  out  all  their  exercise 
in  yelling  to  cheer  their  team.  The  players  whose 
bodies  are  already  in  good  condition  get  more 
exercise  than  is  beneficial,  lose  through  physical 
weariness  much  valuable  time,  and  frequently  at 
the  end  of  the  season,  when  training  "is  over," 
suffer  a  serious  relapse  of  physical  strength. 

The  way  out  of  this  perplexity  is  to  establish  M<MUIS  of  i 
certain  fundamental  rational  principles,  and  cling  ^3^nar  ath" 
to  them  unmoved  by  undergraduate  and  alumni 
clamor,  or  by  the  spell  of  prevailing  fashion. 


270 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Advantages 
of  athletics. 


Team  work. 


Clean  living-. 


First:  The  main  legitimate  ends  of  athletics 
are  health  and  fun.  All  others  are  subsidiary  to 
them. 

Second:  Practically  all  should  partake  in  act- 
ually doing  something  with  their  bodies  in  some 
form  of  athletics  suitable  to  their  needs  and 
strength,  if  it  be  only  the  regular  brisk  morning 
walk. 

Third:  A  physical  and  athletic  director,  with 
this  broader  vision,  should  replace  the  profes- 
sional "  coach "  in  the  high  school  and  the  college. 
The  director  of  athletics  should  have  as  much  cul- 
ture as  any  other  member  of  the  faculty. 

With  these  principles  established,  the  funda- 
mental play  spirit,  which  is  the  natural  heritage 
of  uncorrupted  youth,  would  again  possess  ath- 
letics, and  commercialism  be  driven  out. 

Advantages  of  Athletics.— Elementary  football 
and  baseball  training  is  largely  drudgery — the 
candidate  for  the  team  is  either  persistent  or  he 
is  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  need  of  persistence 
before  he  gets  through  his  preliminary  work.  He 
learns,  as  an  adult,  what  he  may  have  forgotten 
from  his  childhood,  absolute,  implicit,  unquestion- 
ing obedience  to  those  in  command. 

Later  on,  he  learns  that  successful  football  de- 
pends more  upon  team  work,  i.  e.,  willing  coopera- 
tion— a  lesson,  that  if  applied,  will  be  of  value 
throughout  his  life. 

Under  the  trainer  he  learns  that  clean  living  is 
one  of  the  essentials  of  athletic  success ;  that  he 
who  abuses  his  body  pays  the  penalty  for  his 
every  excess.  Out  of  his  failures  will  come  the 


PLAY  AND  ATHLETICS  IN   EDUCATION  271 

realization  that  he  pays.  Not  only  physically,  but 
mentally  and  morally — a  bit  of  human  philosophy, 
a  lesson  in  physical  well  being,  that  he  might  other- 
wise not  learn  until  late  in  life. 

On  the  field  he  learns  to  think  quickly,  to  act 
in  an  emergency,  to  apply  previously  acquired  Quick 
experience  and  knowledge  instantaneously  to  new 
conditions  that  may  arise  suddenly  and  without 
warning. 

Athletics  probably  does  more  for  the  inculca- 
tion of  a  spirit  of  loyalty  for  the  school  or  college  Splrlt  of 
than  any  other  one  student  activity,  and  the  higher  i°yaity. 
the  plane  on  which  athletics  is  held,  the  greater 
the  loyalty  and  class  spirit  ensuing.    The  student 
loyal  to  his  alma  mater,  and  revering  its  high 
standards,  literary  and  athletic,  is  a  missionary 
for  that  institution  to  his  last  breath. 

How  divergent  are  the  opinions  regarding  the 
game  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  one  extreme 
which  would  eliminate  it  entirely  as  outside  the 
sphere  of  educational  institutions;  and  of  the 
other,  which  measures  the  success  of  a  school 
chiefly  by  its  gridiron  accomplishments.  But  in 
between  are  the  great  majority  of  educators  who 
believe  that  educational  institutions  exist  pri- 
marily for  intellectual  purposes,  but  realize  that 
many  benefits  to  both  institution  and  students 
may  be  derived  from  a  well  directed  athletic 
department. 

The  requirement,  now  almost  or  quite  general,  Beqnirement 
that  candidates  for  the  different  teams  must  make 
at  least  a  passing  grade  or  be  barred  from  the 
team,  has  gone  a  long  way  toward  removing  the 


272  PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

stigma  that  used  to  attach  to  college  athletics — 
instances  where  "special  students"  were  per- 
mitted to  matriculate  and  loaf  through  the  fall 
or  spring  terms  for  the  real  if  not  ostensible 
purpose  of  playing  football  or  baseball — these  re- 
quirements have  put  college  athletics  on  a  quite 
different  plane  from  what  used  to  be.  Players 
nowadays  must  be  bona  fide  students,  with  pass- 
ing records.  And  we  find  many  of  them  far  above 
the  average  of  their  class — a  tribute  to  clean  liv- 
ing and  thinking,  and  to  the  changed  standards 
in  college  athletics. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  BUBAL  SCHOOL  PROBLEM 

The  Rural  Problem.— Within  the  last  few  years, 
there  seems  to  have  arisen  in  the  minds  of  many 
people  the  realization  that  there  is  a  rural  prob- 
lem. Not  much  was  said  about  this  problem  until 
the  appointment  of  a  Eural  School  Commission 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  but  a  few  Bxodnsfrom 
years  ago.  Since  that  time,  sociologists  have  tn*  country, 
directed  their  attention  to  it,  and  they  seem  to 
have  reached  an  agreement  that  the  exodus  from  • 
the  country  to  the  city  is  its  most  menacing  fea- 
ture. Doubtless,  the  danger  of  this  movement  to 
the  city  has  been  exaggerated;  but  that  it  is  a 
danger  is  now  recognized,  and  if  we  can  not  find 
something  to  take  "back  to  the  farm"  those  who 
have  already  gone,  what  ever  can  be,  ought  to  be, 
done  to  give  those  who  have  remained  in  the  coun- 
try more  of  the  advantages  of  the  achievements 
of  the  race  than  it  appears  they  are  now  receiving. 

There  has  not  been,  as  some  appear  to  believe, 
any  retrogression  or  deterioration  of  rural  life. 
In  recent  years  great  progress  has  been  made  in  No  deterlora_ 
agriculture  and  all  the  arts  that  engage  our  rural 
population.  They  enjoy  many  advantages  over 
the  rural  population  of  even  ten  years  ago,  there- 
fore, there  must  be  some  other  reason  for  so  many 
being  drawn  from  the  country  to  the  city. 


274 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Causes  of 
exodus  from 
the  country. 


Animation  of 
city  life  at- 
tractive. 


Superior 
school  facil- 
ities of  the 
city. 


The  causes  for  this  exodus  are  many,  some  of 
which  lie  deeper  in  the  problem  than  others. 
Hard,  persistent  work,  dependence  upon  weather 
and  markets,  long  hours  and  plain  fare,  monotony 
and  isolation,  all  operate  to  discourage  the  boy 
or  the  girl  of  spirit  from  remaining  on  the  farm. 
The  meretricious  desirability  of  the  positions  of 
bookkeeper,  stenographer,  or  salesman,  with  fan- 
cied opportunities  for  rapid  promotion,  entices 
many  from  the  greensward  to  the  brick  pavement. 
Even  the  shop,  with  its  limit  of  eight,  or  even  ten, 
hours  of  work  per  day,  contrasts  favorably  with 
the  conditions  of  the  farm,  when  one  fails  to 
appreciate  the  difference  between  the  song  of  the 
birds  and  the  clang  of  machinery.  Above  all,  the 
animation  and  excitement  of  the  city,  its  thronged 
streets,  and  its  numerous  places  for  diversion  and 
entertainment,  constitute  the  "lure  of  the  city" 
that  draws  them  from  the  country. 

Many  parents  seek  the  city  for  the  educational 
advantages  afforded  there  for  their  children.  The 
rural  school  has  perhaps  aided,  positively  as  well 
as  negatively,  in  the  depopulation  of  the  country. 
The  rural  teacher  is  usually  a  young  man  or 
woman  from  the  city,  whose  influence  tends  to  cre- 
ate in  the  pupils  a  desire  for  the  city.  The  subject 
matter  of  the  course  of  study  is  permeated  with 
reference  to  the  city  and  its  many  activities.  The 
reading  lesson,  recounting  how  a  poor  boy  became 
a  merchant  prince,  the  arithmetic  problems,  in- 
volving transactions  of  banks,  etc., — all  tend  to 
create  ambition  to  go  to  the  city. 

Another  cause  for  movement  towards  the  city 


THE  RURAL   SCHOOL   PROBLEM  275 

is  the  general  advance  in  the  price  of  land,  which  Advance  m 
in  many  sections  of  the  country  precludes  the 


possibility  of  land  owning  by  the  wage-earner. 

For  some  of  these  conditions,  remedies  have 
been  discovered.  Machinery  has  been  invented  to 
relieve  many  farming  occupations  of  the  arduous 
toil  that  formerly  characterized  them.  Most  of 
the  field  work,  and  much  of  the  house  work,  can 
now  be  done  with  machinery.  "The  man  with  the 
hoe"  is  becoming  historic.  Methods  of  crop  rota- 
tion, cultivation,  and  fertilization  have  been  sub- 
stituted for  former  '  '  soil-mining.  '  '  Seed  selection 
and  the  keeping  of  records  are  rendering  farming 
more  business  like. 

Telephone  service  and  rural  free  delivery  of 
mail  have  to  a  considerable  extent  dissipated  the 
isolation  of  farm  life.  Automobiles  and  good  Remedies  for 
roads  minister  to  social  as  well  as  industrial  needs. 
Organized  cooperation  in  marketing  gives  the 
farmer  better  prices  for  his  produce,  while  coop- 
erative buying  enables  him  to  get  more  for  his 
money.  These  improvements  bring  the  farmer 
greater  reward  for  his  labor,  and  enable  him  to 
secure  the  means  and  the  leisure  to  minister  to  his 
higher  life.  When  these  favorable  conditions 
have  become  general,  the  inherent  advantages  of 
the  country  —  pure  air,  cheap,  plentiful  and  whole- 
some food,  quietude  and  peace,  health  and  sanity 
—  will  be  better  appreciated. 

The  Rural  School  Problem.—  To  popularize  all 
these  improvements,  to  furnish  desirable  oppor- 
tunity for  recreation  and  the  cultivation  of  social 
life,  and  to  provide  the  educational  facilities  that 


276 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


The  little  red 
school  house 
of  th«  past. 


No  great  Im- 
provement in 
rural  schools. 


parents  desire  for  their  children  is  the  Rural 
School  Problem.  The  solution  of  this  problem 
will  be  the  chief  means  of  keeping  the  young 
people  in  the  country. 

To  the  usual  speaker  of  the  first  century  of 
American  independence  "the  little  red  school- 
house  on  the  hill"  was  an  unfailing  source  of  in- 
spiration. It  is  granted  that  the  "red  school- 
house"  served  its  generation  well.  It  relieved  the 
illiteracy  inevitable  under  pioneer  conditions.  Its 
results,  limited  though  they  were,  satisfied  the 
modest  demands  of  the  people  of  that  period. 
With  its  spelling  bees  and  singing  schools,  it  pro- 
vided an  opportunity  for  young  people  to  meet. 
A  good  teacher,  however  slight  his  opportunity 
for  instruction,  could  no  doubt  be  an  inspiration 
to  a  rural  community,  when  he  mingled  freely 
with  the  people  every  day.  The  abundance  of 
work  in  the  numerous  different  industries  and 
occupations  in  operation  on  every  farm  a  hun- 
dred years  ago,  afforded  opportunity  for  a  prac- 
tical education. 

It  is  no  reflection  on  the  past  to  say  that  it  is 
gone.  The  adequacy  of  the  "little  red  school- 
house"  has  gone  with  the  tallow  candle  and  the 
ox-team,  yet  the  condition  of  the  typical  country 
school,  before  the  advent  of  the  improvements  of 
the  last  twenty-five  years,  is  still,  in  the  main,  the 
condition  of  the  majority  of  the  rural  schools 
to-day. 

The  school  district  served  is  small,  perhaps  on 
an  average  six  square  miles  in  extent.  The  only 
thought  in  the  minds  of  the  organizers  was  that 


THE   BUBAL   SCHOOL   PBOBLEM  277 

of  shortening  the  distance  to  be  traveled  by  the 
pupils  in  attending  school.  Sometimes  neighbor- 
hood jealousies  and  individual  scheming  have  been 
responsible  for  the  division  and  subdivision  of 
school  districts. 

With  the  smallness  of  the  district  naturally 
follows  the  fewness  of  children,  often  less  than 
twenty,  and  occasionally  less  than  ten.  When  the 
support  of  the  school  depends  on  a  "per  capita" 
state  " apportionment,"  the  funds  for  mainte- 
nance of  the  school  are  consequently  limited.  If 
the  property  valuation  is  low,  as  is  usual  in  rural 
districts,  where  the  principal  taxable  value  resides 
in  the  land,  and  when  the  levy  is  limited  by  law, 
even  a  local  tax  fails  to  add  a  great  deal  to  the 
maintenance  fund. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  school  term  is 
likely  to  be  short,  often  less  than  six  months.  Any 
business  conducted  for  only  half  of  the  year  is 
not  likely  to  prosper.  Every  school  with  only  one 
teacher  suffers  from  the  necessary  multiplicity  of 
classes.  But  the  teacher  who  can  afford  to  work 
at  a  low  salary  for  a  short  term  is  either  young 
and  inexperienced  or  is  ineffective.  The  term 
being  short,  and  the  teaching  inefficient,  the  in- 
terest in  the  school  is  evanescent.  The  children 
being  few,  the  classes  are  small,  some  containing 
perhaps  only  one  or  two  pupils.  Hence  the  stim- 
ulus  of  numbers,  and  the  mutual  incitement  to 
mental  activity,  on  which  teachers  of  large  classes 
can  depend  for  motive  force  to  animate  the  recita- 
tion, are  absent  in  the  average  country  school. 

The  subjects  taught  often  have  only  a  slight 


278 


PEINCIPLES  AND  PKOCESSES 


Frequent 
chang-e  of 
teachers. 


Lack  of  asso- 
ciation for 
the  teacher. 


Education  a 
paying-  in. 
vestment. 


Necessity  for 
local  taxa- 
tion. 


bearing  upon  the  practical  needs  and  interests  of 
the  child,  at  least  so  far  as  the  parents  under- 
stand them.  Under  the  circumstances,  there  is 
little  reason  to  expect  regular  attendance  of 
pupils. 

The  teacher  having  failed  in  a  season's  work 
in  the  community,  prefers  to  try  another  place 
next  year,  and  the  community  is  equally  ready  to 
try  another  teacher.  Another  thing  that  wears  on 
the  best  country  teacher  is  the  lack  of  association 
with  fellow-workers  in  the  same  field. 

Modern  educational  administration  is  not  less 
ready  than  agricultural  science  to  prescribe  rem- 
edies for  rural  ills  in  its  own  field.  In  the  first 
place  it  must  be  recognized  that  education  is  a 
business,  which  for  its  successful  prosecution,  de- 
mands adequate  capital.  It  is  common  business 
acumen  to  invest  money  where  it  will  bring  a 
dividend.  That  education  pays  is  a  proposition  so 
well  established  that  no  argument  is  necessary. 
The  countries  that  have  invested  most  liberally 
in  education  continue  to  do  so  most  willingly. 
Entire  dependence  upon  the  bounty  of  the  state, 
made  possible  by  the  foresight  and  statesmanship 
of  the  fathers,  must  yield  to  an  intelligent  pro- 
vision for  local  needs  by  a  local  tax. 

"With  sufficient  funds  the  school  term  could  be 
lengthened,  say  to  eight  months,  the  goal  set  by 
the  Federal  Commission  of  Education.  This  is 
possible  even  in  the  agricultural  regions  of  the 
South,  where  the  labor  of  children  must  be  used 
for  several  weeks  in  the  cotton  fields.  When  the 
school  is  inefficient,  parents  are  not  apt  to  keep 


THE  BUBAL   SCHOOL  PBOBLEM  279 

children  in  school  when  their  services  are  needed 
at  home ;  but  when  the  school  is  practical  and  effi- 
cient, most  parents,  whenever  possible,  will  dis- 
pense with  their  services,  in  order  to  keep  their 
children  at  school  for  the  entire  year. 

With  more  funds  provided,  better  salaries  can 
be  paid,  which  will,  if  used  with  discretion,  secure 
better  teachers.    These  teachers  being  better  paid 
and  for  a  longer  term,  can  afford  to  invest  in  pro- teP8Clxools- 
f essional  preparation  for  school  work. 

The  Consolidation  of  Schools.— There  are  still  a 
number  of  difficulties  which  can  not  be  overcome, 
even  by  an  economical  use  of  money.  The  small 
number  of  children  in  a  little  district,  the  conse- 
quent lack  of  sufficient  numbers  in  a  class  to  make 
the  work  interesting  to  teacher  and  pupils,  the 
great  number  of  classes,  and  the  short  time  given 
on  the  daily  program  to  any  lesson,  the  limitation 
upon  the  number,  variety,  and  advanced  nature  of 
the  courses  of  work  offered,  all  require  a  different 
treatment.  The  remedy  that  cures  most  of  these 
troubles  is  the  form  of  organization  known  as 
consolidation. 

An  ordinary  school  condition  in  some  sections 
of  the  country  is  the  location  of  four  schools  in  a 
territory  of  four  miles  square,  with  an  average 
of  twenty-five  pupils  each.  If,  instead  of  these 
four,  there  were  one  schoolhouse  in  the  center  of 
this  territory,  with  three  class-rooms  and  an  audi- 
torium,  the  school  could  be  taught  by  three  teach- 
ers. This  would  make  it  possible  to  grade  the 
school.  A  primary  teacher  could  teach  the  first, 
second  and  third  grades.  An  intermediate  teacher 


280 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Stimulus  of 
number*. 


More  effective 
direction  of 
play. 


The  teacher'a 
home. 

Problem  of 
board  for  the 
teacher. 


the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth.  The  principal  could 
teach  the  seventh  grade  and  two  grades  of  high 
school  work.  This  condition  is  not  ideal,  but  it 
would  be  a  great  improvement  upon  the  average 
conditions  of  the  present.  With  three  grades  in- 
stead of  six  or  seven,  the  recitation  periods  could 
be  of  more  reasonable  length  and  still  permit  the 
course  of  study  to  be  given  without  much  abbre- 
viation. 

Since,  under  this  new  condition,  there  would  be 
from  ten  to  fifteen  pupils  instead  of  two  or  three 
in  a  class,  a  different  spirit  would  prevail  in  the 
recitation.  Instead  of  being  a  drag,  pulled  along 
by  the  teacher's  sense  of  duty,  it  would  be  a  thing 
of  power  that  would  move  "under  its  own  steam. " 
The  larger  the  number  of  pupils  taught  together, 
the  more  economical  is  the  provision  of  laboratory 
equipment  for  the  proper  teaching  of  the  sciences, 
agriculture,  domestic  science  and  manual  training. 

On  the  play-ground  a  hundred  children  can  be 
directed  more  effectively  than  twenty-five.  Girls 
and  boys  can  have  separate  play-grounds,  and  the 
larger  and  the  smaller  can  have  games  suitable 
to  their  ages,  there  being  enough  of  all  classes  to 
make  the  games  interesting.  The  development  of 
school  spirit  is  an  easier  matter  in  a  large  school, 
and  this  spirit  has  a  profound  significance  in 
moral  education. 

The  problem  of  the  teacher's  boarding,  and  his 
isolation  can  be  solved  by  providing,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  consolidated  school,  a  teacher's  home 
for  the  principal,  who  should  be  a  man  with  a 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  PROBLEM   ,  281 

family.       The  home  should  be  large  enough  to 
afford  a  place  for  the  assistant  teachers  to  board. 

Transportation  of  Pupils.— A  problem  of  the 
consolidated  school  district  is  the  transportation 
of  pupils.  In  the  hypothetical  district  described  ^^ 

above,  most  of  the  children  could  walk,  and.com-  tiSfof 01 
munity  cooperation  could  easily  arrange  for  the  pupUl 
transportation  of  the  others.  Public  transporta- 
tion, at  small  cost,  is  provided  in  many  places. 
Two  conveyances  driving  five  miles  each,  come 
within  a  mile  of  practically  every  point  in  the 
district.  In  a  more  sparsely  settled  country,  pro- 
vided with  good  roads,  it  would  be  possible  to 
have  the  district  larger,  perhaps  six  miles  square, 
and  to  displace  more  small  schools,  necessitating 
additional  conveyance.  Since  drivers  are  not  en- 
gaged for  the  whole  of  the  day,  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation need  not  be  heavy.  Sometimes  older 
students,  by  this  means,  may  defray  their  ex- 
penses and  attend  the  school.  The  wagons  are 
covered,  and  in  extreme  weather  are  heated  by 
means  of  a  small  stove.  Children  meet  the  wagon 
at  the  main  road,  on  a  definite  schedule.  The 
rules  allow  the  wagon  to  wait  for  two  minutes, 
but  not  longer.  It  has  been  the  universal  expe- 
rience where  children  are  transferred  that  tardi- 
ness, as  well  as  absences,  is  comparatively  rare 
in  the  consolidated  school. 

Under  some  circumstances  the  cost  of  the  con- 
solidated school  is  less  than  that  of  the  smaller 
schools  displaced,  but  cheapness  is  not  the  object 
sought.  If  the  cost  of  the  consolidated  school 
were  double  that  of  the  schools  displaced,  it  would 


282 


PBIETCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Cost  of  trans. 
portation. 


Difficulties  of 
consolidation. 


The  rural 
school  coarse 
of  study. 


still  be  more  economical,  because  of  the  far  better 
results  achieved  through  the  longer  term,  more 
regular  attendance,  better  teachers,  graded  work, 
and  division  of  labor.  The  principles  of  consoli- 
dation are  applicable  under  a  great  variety  of 
circumstances.  Sometimes  a  centralization  of  all 
advanced  instruction  in  a  district  high  school  will 
be  more  feasible  than  complete  consolidation. 
Sometimes  one  village  can  afford  to  transport  its 
entire  school  population  to  another  village  four 
or  five  miles  away. 

A  number  of  objections  to  consolidation  may 
be  found  by  those  averse  to  the  innovation.  But 
the  only  serious  one  is  the  condition  of  the  roads. 
Of  course,  there  are  sections  of  the  country  which 
are  forbidding.  However,  the  science  of  road- 
making  and  the  increasing  value  of  land  make  it 
only  a  matter  of  intelligent  and  persistent  effort 
to  convince  any  district  of  the  desirability  of  good 
roads  for  many  purposes  besides  education.  In 
some  instances  consolidation  has  been  a  leading 
factor  in  stimulating  road  improvement. 

Course  of  Study  for  Rural  Schools.— The  course 
of  study  for  rural  schools  should  in  some  respects 
be  modified  to  suit  their  special  needs.  There 
should  be  given  considerable  attention  to  the  great 
industries  of  the  open  country,  farming,  dairying, 
stockraising,  poultry  keeping,  apiculture,  forestry, 
etc.  The  mechanical  arts,  woodwork,  blacksmith- 
ing,  saddlery,  etc.,  might  well  have  a  place  in  the 
curriculum.  Farm  economics,  farm  accounting, 
and  farm  architecture  are  proper  subjects  for  a 
rural  high  school.  Domestic  science,  of  a  prac- 


THE  BUBAL  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  M 

tical  kind,  and  the  allied  arts,  should  not  be 
omitted.  But  no  book  of  itself  is  capable  of  ren-  TheBOhool 
dering  this  instruction.  Only  the  specially  pre-  *«*»• 
pared  teacher,  who  lives  in  the  district  perma- 
nently, can  make  the  course  effective.  A  school 
farm  of  ten  acres  should  be  provided,  and  this 
should  become  a  veritable  demonstration  farm, 
and  made  to  supplement  materially  the  funds  of 
the  school.  The  school  premises  should  be  the 
beauty  spot  of  the  district,  as  is  universally  the 
case  in  the  progressive  countries  of  Europe. 

A  Large  School  Unit. — The  unit  of  organization 
for  effective  rural  education  should  be  on  a  larger 
basis  than  at  present,  perhaps  a  fifth  of  a  county 
(which  for  convenient  distinction  we  may  call  a 
division),  with  larger  consolidation  districts,  of 
from  twelve  to  twenty  square  miles,  so  that  there  DutieBofth» 
would  be  from  ten  to  fifteen  schools  in  a  division.  »chooii>oard. 
Each  of  these  schools  should  be  represented  on  the 
division  board  by  a  local  trustee  elected  by  the 
qualified  voters  of  the  district.  The  policies 
affecting  the  division  as  a  whole,  such  as  stand- 
ards of  efficiency  in  equipment,  salaries,  annual 
tax,  the  purchase  of  supplies,  etc.,  should  be 
decided  by  the  division  board  in  session.  Purely 
local  concerns,  such  as  repairs,  the  nomination  of 
a  teacher,  and  anything  in  the  nature  of  an  emer- 
gency, should  be  the  care  of  the  local  trustee. 
Each  of  the  five  divisions  should  be  represented 
by  a  delegate  on  the  county  board,  for  the  purpose  »u«e™f  t&e 
of  electing  the  county  superintendent.  This 
plan  would  eliminate  the  possibility  of  the  county 
superintendent's  nominating  electors  who  would 


284 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Expert,  pro. 
fessional 
country 
school  super- 
vision. 


County  super. 

inter  clent 
should  "be 
appointed. 


favor  his  return.  A  plan  of  organization  some- 
what resembling  the  one  here  outlined  obtains  in 
Kentucky.  It  is  believed  this  plan  of  organization 
would  remove  the  evils  of  ignorant  and  tyrannical 
control,  abolish  backwardness,  and  tend  to  more 
permanent  tenure  of  the  teacher's  position. 

The  rural  school  as  well  as  the  city  school  or 
any  other  enterprise  using  the  services  of  many 
workers,  needs  supervision.  Heretofore,  the 
county  superintendency,  or  school  commissioner- 
ship,  has  suffered  from  the  lack  of  professional 
basis  and  background.  It  has  generally  been  a 
"political"  instead  of  a  professional  position, 
which  the  limitations  of  local  residence  and  other 
aspects  of  a  political  nature  have  prevented  from 
accomplishing  its  greatest  possibility  for  educa- 
tion. Doubtless,  many  of  the  superintendents 
have  been  fairly  good  teachers,  though  in  some 
states  few  have  had  special  preparation  for  the 
work  of  supervision.  Doubtless,  the  great  ma- 
jority have  been  conscientious  in  their  desire  to 
do  their  duty  by  the  schools  and  by  the  teachers 
under  their  direction.  Appointment  by  a  county 
board,  rather  than  election  by  popular  vote,  would 
obviously  produce  some  beneficial  changes — 
greater  permanence  of  tenure,  wider  field  of  selec- 
tion for  qualities  that  count  for  more  in  the  actual 
work,  the  possibility  of  promotion  from  a  small 
county  to  a  larger  county  with  greater  salary — 
all  these  are  to  be  regarded  as  measures  that  make 
a  profession  out  of  an  occupation. 

Supervision  of  Rural  Schools— With  schools 
centered  in  larger  districts,  so  that  a  county 


THE  RURAL   SCHOOL  PROBLEM  285 

thirty  miles  square  would  have  about  fifty  schools, 
the  superintendent  would  be  able  to  give  super- 
vision that  would  be  really  effective.  The  single 
visit  a  year  is  but  little  better  than  none,  but  vision 
by  three  or  four  yearly  visits,  the  superintendent 
could  be  of  real  service  to  the  school.  Modern 
methods  of  conveyance  would  also  add  greatly  to 
the  superintendent's  usefulness,  for  the  time  that 
counts  is  that  which  the  superintendent  spends  in 
the  school,  and  not  that  which  is  consumed  on  the 
road. 

As  to  the  exact  way  in  which  the  superintendent 
can  help  the  school  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit, 
there  may  be  considerable  diversity,  dependent 
upon  the  temperament  of  the  superintendent  and 
upon  local  conditions.  The  formal  speech  and  the  The  work  of 

£  99  A      -L       j-  j.    j  A  the  county 

''hearing  of  a  class  '  are  to  be  discounted  as  at  *nperin- 
best  only  forms  of  conventional  courtesy.      The 
general  method  should  involve  the  forming  of  a 
detailed  estimate  of  the  school  somewhat  on  the 
order  of  the  score  card. 

The  following  is  submitted  merely  as  a  sugges- 
tion, subject  to  modification  by  experience.  The 
perfect  score  would  be  one  hundred  points,  thirty- 
five  on  physical  and  sixty-five  on  intellectual  con- 
ditions, with  a  detailed  value  as  follows : 

Outside  Physical  Conditions 10 

Fence  in  repair 2 

Grounds  free  from  paper  and  rubbish  2 

Outbuildings  in  order 2 

Play-ground  apparatus    2 

Scrapers  at  door 1 

Cloakroom  in  order  .  1 


286         PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 

Inside  Physical  Conditions 25 

Floor  properly  swept • 2 

Furniture  properly  dusted 2 

Personal  cleanliness  of  pupils 2 

Arrangement  of  books  in  desks . .  2 

Sanitary  drinking  facilities  2 

Suitable  decoration 2 

Good  air    2 

Comfortable  temperature   2 

Comfortable  seats  properly  placed. ...  2 

Clean  windows  with  shades 2 

Waste  basket  used 1 

Fuel  supply  neatly  kept 1 

Stove  polished  • 1 

Blackboards  free  from  scrawls 1 

Eecords  neatly  kept   1 

Behavior  of  Pupils 20 

Orderly  passing 2 

Alertness  in  obeying  2 

General  play  at  recess 2 

Courtesy    2 

Orderly  entrance  at  bell 2 

Attention  to  work  at  seats 5 

Refraining  from  unnecessary  noise ...  5 

Recitation    30 

Readiness  and  enthusiasm  of  teacher.  5 

Spirit  of  class 5 

Pedagogical  skill 5 

Pupils  knowing  the  lesson 5 

Use  of  good  English 2 

Clear  enunciation    2 

Complete  answers 2 

Social  amenities    .2 


THE  RURAL   SCHOOL  PROBLEM  287 

Naturalness  of  pupils 2 

Community  Cooperation   15 

Active  parents'  and  teachers'  associa- 
tion    5 

Eegularity  of  attendance 5 

Punctuality  . . .  • 5 

The  superintendent,  accustomed  to  the  work, 
can  fill  out  the  card  with  considerable  accuracy 
in  a  short  time.  At  the  close  of  the  day  he  can 
make  a  duplicate  for  future  reference,  and  can 
send  the  original,  with  remarks,  to  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  can  know  definitely  in  what  the  school 
is  adjudged  wanting,  as  well  as  in  what  it  is  com- 
mended. He  can  take  his  pupils  into  his  confi- 
dence, with  reference  to  the  items  in  which  their 
cooperation  is  necessary.  The  pupils  will  readily 
recognize  that  it  is  an  enterprise  in  which  they 
and  the  teacher  have  a  common  interest.  If,  on 
subsequent  visits,  the  score  stands  higher,  it  will 
be  a  recognition  of  improvement,  and  vice  versa. 

The  superintendent  has  one  capital  opportunity 
to  help  his  teachers,  namely,  at  the  annual  insti- 
tute. "Want  of  appreciation  of  its  possibilities  The  county 
and  the  absence  of  intelligent  scientific  methods  institute- 
have  heretofore  made  its  value  more  formal  than 
real,  and  only  moderately  successful.  It  has 
always  had  an  indirect  value  socially,  causing  old 
and  young  teachers  to  mingle,  by  which  the 
younger  distinctly  have  profited  by  the  experi- 
ences of  the  older,  and  the  older  ones  have  gotten 
enthusiasm  from  the  young.  This  has  probably 
been  worth  its  cost. 

The  institute  can  not  give  either  professional 


288 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


Flans  for  the 
county  in. 
stitute. 


Method*  of 
New  York. 


The  Chan. 
tauq.ua  plan. 


training  or  make  much  contribution  to  the  teach- 
er's scholarship,  but  it  may  strike  the  key-note 
for  future  progress  in  both.  It  can  lend  inspira- 
tion, by  furnishing  seed-thoughts  for  germination 
during  the  school  year. 

Specifically,  it  is  better  to  confine  the  attention 
of  the  institute  to  a  few  related  subjects,  and  give 
them  a  thorough  lodgment  and  connection,  than 
to  present  a  multitude  of  ideas,  however  excellent 
in  themselves,  if  unrelated  and  failing  of  general 
incorporation.  For  instance,  an  " English"  insti- 
tute might  devote  the  first  day  to  some  leading 
principles  of  primary  reading,  the  second  to  ad- 
vanced reading,  the  third  to  language  and  gram- 
mar, the  fourth  to  composition,  and  the  fifth  to 
literature.  The  following  year  might  see  a 
"Geography  and  History"  institute,  or  one  on 
"Method  and  Discipline." 

The  programme  should  be  made  with  great 
care,  in  view  of  the  needs  that  have  become  evi- 
dent, and  long  enough  in  advance  to  get  the  right 
things  prepared  to  meet  these  needs.  The  insti- 
tute work  of  a  state  might  well  have  a  bureau  in 
the  State  Department  of  Education,  to  provide 
expert  direction.  The  State  of  New  York  has 
five  strong  educators,  selected  as  institute  con- 
ductors, the  work  in  the  various  counties  being 
spread  over  the  entire  school  year. 

The  plan  of  the  so-called  Chautauqua  institute 
is  for  a  group  of  five  neighboring  counties  to 
have  their  institutes  at  the  same  time.  By  a  joint 
committee,  these  counties  prepare  a  common  pro- 
gram, at  least  as  far  as  it  affects  the  principal 


THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  289 

feature.  This  feature  is  to  secure  five  strong 
school  men,  each  to  give  two  addresses  at  each 
institute.  The  work  of  each  day  is  planned  with 
these  addresses  as  the  principal  feature.  But 
there  is  great  danger  that  too  great  dependence 
upon  national  celebrities  will  weaken  the  work  of 
the  institute,  defeat  its  purpose,  and  make  a 
simple  entertainment  of  a  splendid  working  prop- 
osition. 

The  superintendent  should  consider  himself  the 
apostle  of  educational  progress,  not  satisfied  to 
follow,  but  to  lead  bravely  and  persistently  public  The  superin 
opinion.    To  do  this  requires  sympathy  and  tact,  *5J|Jg\e 
in  order  not  to  repel  those  with  whom  he  must  a  leader, 
cooperate.    The  popularly  elected  superintendent 
finds  this  more  difficult  than  the  one  appointed 
by  a  board. 

The  organization  of  school  rallies  is  a  very  effi- 
cient means,  but  there  is  need  of  both  preparing 
for  the  rally  and  following  it  up  with  correspond- 
ence and  conferences. 

Better  buildings  and  more  adequate  equipment, 
better  teachers,  longer  terms,  larger  salaries,  pro- 
tracted tenure,  should  be  the  achievements  of  the 
superintendent  that  afford  him  most  gratification. 

Finally,  the  superintendent  should  constitute 
himself  a  seeker  for  latent  talent.  With  five  thou- 
sand pupils  in  the  schools  under  his  supervision, 
there  ought  to  be  some  who  by  his  attention  could 
be  set  on  the  road  to  higher  usefulness.  A  county 
superintendent  started  the  boys'  corn  club  move- 
ment, which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the 


290 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PROCESSES 


What  may  be 
done  with  the 
school  house 
as  a  social 
center. 


Federal  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  super- 
intendent, on  the  occasion  of  his  visits,  might  well 
be  prepared  to  say  or  to  show  something  that 
would  make  his  return  anticipated  with  delight. 
No  work  he  could  personally  do  ought  to  be  so 
delightful  to  him  as  this  relation  with  the  chil- 
dren. 

The  Schoolhouse  as  a  Social  Center.— A  move- 
ment of  late  years,  zealously  advocated,  is  that 
of  making  the  school  the  "social  center"  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  school  is  adapted  to  this,  be- 
cause in  it  the  community  already  has  a  unified 
interest.  The  larger  the  territory  served  by  the 
school,  the  more  valuable  will  the  social  inter- 
course be,  and  the  wider  the  circle  of  friendships 
formed.  Even  one  meeting  a  month  does  much 
to  relieve  the  evils  of  isolation  and  monotony  inci- 
dent to  country  life.  At  least  one  room  in  the  con- 
solidated school  should  be  seated  with  the  modern 
movable  chair  desks,  and  a  supply  of  folding 
chairs  kept  in  readiness  for  convenience.  A  lec- 
ture and  entertainment  schedule  can  be  arranged 
under  some  circumstances,  or  home-talent  produc- 
tions, with  occasional  exchange  with  another 
school,  can  be  provided.  The  " refreshment"  fea- 
ture has  not  been  outgrown,  nor  has  the  old  fash- 
ioned '  '  box-supper ' '  lost  its  charm.  Some  definite 
object  may  be  needed  to  furnish  a  motive  for  each 
meeting,  such  as  a  school  library,  in  which  the 
community  may  share  the  benefits.  The  reflex 
influence  of  this  social  enterprise  can  not  fail  to 
prove  educationally  beneficial. 

By  thus  unifying  the  various  activities  and  in- 


THE   RURAL   SCHOOL   PROBLEM  291 

fluences  in  the  country,  there  is  reason  to  hope 
that  the  rural  school  problem  can  be  solved,  and 
its  solution  will  help  in  the  solution  of  all  the 
larger  problems  affecting  residence  in  the  country. 


INDEX 


A. 

Abstraction,  123. 
Acquisition,  155. 
Adams,  136. 
Aeolus,  94. 
Aeschines,  79. 
Agassiz,  109. 
Agriculture,  111. 
Algebraic  Method,  141. 
Amoeba — Reproduction  of,  4. 
Angell,  227. 
Angelo,  Michael,  148. 
Antaeus,  260. 
Apperception,  119. 
Application,  224. 
Aristotle,  261. 
Arlington,  96. 

Assignment  of  Lesson,  154. 
Assimilation,  155. 
Athenian  Education,  15. 
Attention,  127,  148. 
Athletics,  257. 

Advantages  of,  270. 

Divergent  Views  of,  271. 

Forms  of,  267. 

Importance  of,  269. 

Means  of  Improving,  269. 

Scholarship  Require- 
ment,  271. 

B. 

Bagley,  240. 
Baldwin,  James,  238. 
"Barefoot  Boy,  The",  104. 
Bergen  &  Davis,  124. 
Betts,  Dr.,  132. 
Blackboards,  40. 
Bolton,  Prof.,  26. 
Browning,  79. 
Burbank,  96. 
Butler,  N.  M.,  63,  64,  85. 
Scheme  of  Courses,  67. 


C. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  131. 

Candor,  253. 

Cartoon,  108. 

Cerebrum  —  Significance     of 

Its  Size,  11. 
Ceres,  93. 
Character,  155. 

An   Essential   Qualifica- 
tion, 73. 
Chinese,  257. 

Church,  The  — An  Educa- 
tional Agency,  29. 
Classification,  123. 
Classrooms,  Size  of,  39. 
Cloakrooms,  41. 
College    Entrance    Require- 
ments, 61. 
Columbus,  134,  151. 
Comenius,  97. 
Comparison,  223,  224. 
Compayre,  227. 
Concept,  116. 

Formation  of,  123. 
Concepts,  Changes  in,  120. 

Should  Be  Clear,  129. 
Conception,  126. 
Concrete  to  Abstract,  124. 
Congenital  Traits,  Transmis- 
sible, 10. 
Connotation,  122. 
Consolidation  of  Schools,  279. 

Advantages  of,  279. 
Control,  Elements  of,  252. 
Conversational  Method,  218. 
Correlation  of  Schools,  63. 
Cotton  Seed,  Its  Products,  22. 
County  Institute,  287. 

Chautauqua  Plan  of,  288. 

Methods     of,     in     New 
York,  288. 


294 


INDEX 


County   School   Superintend- 
ent, a  Leader,  289. 
Appointment  of,  284. 
Course  of  Study,  53. 
Culture,  18. 
Curriculum,  35. 

Should  Be  Directed  by 
Competent  Authority, 
53. 

D. 

Deduction,  137. 

De  Garmo,  Chas.,  68. 

Demonstrative  R  e  a  s  o  ning, 

141. 

Demosthenes,  79. 
Denotation,  122. 
Dewey,  Prof.  John,  34,  151, 

227. 

Diana,  93,  95. 
Dickens,  151. 
Dictionary,  130. 
Diogenes,  86. 
Discipline — Changes  in  View 

of,  250. 

Purpose  of,  251. 
Draper,  Dr.  A.  S.,  64. 
Drawing,  107. 
Dutton,  Dr.  S.  T.,  55. 

E. 

Edison,  10,  96. 
Education  —  A    Paying    In- 
vestment, 278. 

Biological  Basis  of,  3. 

Continuous,  48. 

Defined,  14. 

Liberal  and  Vocational, 
66. 

How  Regarded  by  An- 
cients, 33. 

Standards  of,  34. 

A  Universal  Right,  33. 
Educational  Agencies,  23. 

Formal  and  Informal,  27. 
Educational  Aims,  14. 
Educational  Commission,  63. 
Edwards  Family,  The,  9. 
Eiffel  Tower,  96. 


Electives,  69. 

Wide  Range  of,  Impossi- 
ble, 70. 

Eliot,  Dr.  Charles,  19,  110. 
Emerson,  76. 

Examination — Abuse  of,  236. 
Value  of,  237. 
Nature  of,  238. 
Principles    Governing, 

239,  244. 

Exodus  from  the  Country- 
Causes  of,  274. 
Remedies  for,  275. 
Experience— Not    Always    a 
Guaranty  of   Effi- 
ciency, 85. 
Expression,  155. 
Extension  Work,  49. 

F. 

Family  Traits,  8. 

Federal  Commission  of  Ru- 
ral Schools,  278. 

Field,  Eugene,  157. 

Formal  Discipline — Doctrine 
of,  56. 

Froebel,  258. 

G. 

Galileo,  134. 

Galle,  Dr.,  136. 

Genius,  10. 

Geometric  Reasoning,  142. 

Generalization,  223. 

Gladstone,  131. 

Gorden,  Dr.,  9. 

Growth  of  the  Teacher,  76. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  101. 

H. 

Halleck,  139. 
Hamilton,  Dr.,  227. 
Harris.  Dr.  W.  T.,  68. 
Harvard  University,  78. 
Heating,  42. 
Herbart,  220. 

Heredity — In     Lower      Ani- 
mals, 6. 
Does  Little  for  Man,  7. 


INDEX 


295 


Herschel,  151. 

Home,     The  —  Educational 

Function  of,  24. 
Unit  in  Civilization,   25. 
Traditions  Preserved  by, 

27. 

Home  for  the  Teacher,  280. 
Home  Training — Importance 

of,  25. 

Home  Work,  160. 
Honolulu,  96. 
Home,  Prof.  H.  H.,  24. 
Huxley,  260. 


I. 


Ideas— Before  Words,  151. 

With  Words,  152. 
Illustrations,  Use  of,  209. 
Imagination,  118. 
Induction,  136. 

Perfect    and    Imperfect, 

140. 

Mathematical,  141. 
Inductive  Philosophy,  105. 
Industrial  Education,  34. 
Industrial  Training,  111. 
Infancy — Period  of,  Lacking 

in  Lowest  Forms,  5. 
Helplessness  of   Human 

Infancy,  6. 

Necessity  for  Long  Pe- 
riod of,  12. 
Interest,  148. 
Interscholastic  Leagues,  266. 

J. 

Janssen,  21. 

Jenner,  21. 

Jesus— His  Teachings,  230. 

Judgment,  126. 

Mistakes  in,  133. 
Jupiter,  135. 
Juke  Family,  The,  9. 

K. 

Kallikak  Family,  The,  9. 
Keller,  Helen,  116. 


Knowledge,    Acquisition    of, 

44. 
Different      Degrees      in 

Value  of,  18. 
Should  Be  First  Hand, 

100. 
Known  to  Unknown,  119. 


Laboratory  Method,  103. 
Language,  Useful  in  Thought 

Training,  151. 
Lesson,  The,  154. 

Assignment  of,  154,  155, 

156. 

Its  Aim,  157. 
Its  Subject,  157. 
Preparation  of,  169. 
Proper  Length,  149. 
Subject  Plan  of,  157. 
Lesson    Assignment — Princi- 
ples for,  163. 
Time  for,  166. 
Lesson  Plans — Develop  Good 

Habits,  176. 
Models  of,  182,  184,  187, 

196,  200. 

Preparation  of,  180. 
Provision    for     Summa- 
ries,  181. 
Supplementary  material 

in,  181. 
Steps  in,  173. 

Lesson     Problems  —  Assign- 
ment of,  164. 
Le  Verrier,  136. 
Light  in  Classroom,  41. 
Light— Velocity  of,  135. 
Lincoln,  City  of,  36. 
Long,  Dr.  Crawford,  22. 
Loyalty,  87. 

M. 

Mammals — Care  for  Their 
Young,  5. 

Man — His  Inheritances,  His 
Individu ality,  His 
Family  Traits,  8. 

Marconi,  96. 


296 


INDEX 


Mars,  94. 

Matagorda  Bay,  101. 
Memory — Types  of,  59. 
Mind,  The,  117. 
Missionary  —  His     Achieve- 
ments, 30. 

Modern  Education,  16. 
Monroe,  227. 
Montessori,  258. 
Morgan,  153. 

Mosquito — Life  Cycle  of,  4. 
Mothers'  Clubs,  160. 
Moving  Picture,  107. 
Music,  109. 
McMurray,  227. 

N. 

Nebraska,  University  of,  36. 
Neptune,  93,  138. 
Newton,  135,  151. 
Newcomb,  Simon,  234. 
New  York  City,  263. 
Note  Book,  Abuse  of,  114. 

0. 

Observation,  118,  123. 
Olympic  Games,  266. 
One  Teacher  School — Disad- 
vantages of,  277. 
Opportunities  for  Service,  21. 

P. 

Parent  and  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciations, 160. 
Particular    to    the    General, 

124. 

Pasteur,  21,  96. 
Payne,  Joseph,  239,  242,  249. 
Penalties,  255. 
Percept,  118. 
Perception,  117. 
Pestalozzi,  258. 
Phonograph,  110. 
Physical  Training,  35. 
Pisa,  University  of,  134. 
Plasticity,  Period  of,  12. 
Play — An  Agency  in  Educa- 
tion, 257. 

Apparatus  for,  263. 

In  Education,  257. 

Its  Value,  261. 


Poe,  10. 

Power,  Means  for,  45. 

Preparation, 

Of  Lesson,  155. 
Presentation,  223. 
Promotion  of  Pupils,  234 
Punishment,  Principles  Gov- 
erning, 256. 

Q. 

Question  and  Answer  Meth- 
od, 214. 
Questioning — 

Faulty  Method  of,  128. 


E. 

Reasoning,  127. 
Recitation,  The,  155. 

Its  Formalities,  208. 

Formal  Steps  of,  220. 

Its  Forms,  209. 

Its  Meaning,  205. 

Its  Rules,  207. 

Methods  of,  212. 

Purposes  of,  205. 
Roark,  227. 
Roemer,  135. 
Roman  Education,  15. 
Rousseau,  258. 
Rural     School     Commission, 

Rural     Schools  —  Course    of 

Study  for,  282. 
Efficiency  Test  of,  286. 
No    Great   Improvement 

in,  276. 
Problems,  275. 
Supervision  of,  284. 


S. 


School,  The— A   Social   Cen- 
ter, 49. 

Its  Chief  Function,  44. 
Its  Physical   Conditions, 

36. 
Its  Site,  36. 


INDEX 


297 


Not  Always  the  Leader, 

32. 

Purpose  of,  27. 
Relative  Inefficiency  of, 

47. 
Professional  Supervision 

of,  249. 

The  Outgrowth  of  Soci- 
ety, 32. 
School  Buildings,  38. 

Definite  Plans,  38. 
School  Furniture,  41. 
School  Government,  250. 
School  Grounds,  37. 
School  Shades,  41. 
School  House—A  Social  Cen- 
ter, 290. 

School    Regulations — Princi- 
ples Governing,  254. 
Means  of  Inforcing,  255. 
School     Unit  —  Should     Be 

Larger,  283. 
Seeley,  237,  243. 
Self  Confidence,  253. 
Self  Control,  253. 
Sensation,  117. 
Sense  Training,  97. 
Sensory  Education,  96. 
Service,  19. 
Shakespeare,  10. 
Skill,  97. 

Snedden,  Dr.  David,  66. 
Socrates,  214. 
Socratic  Method,  214. 
Social  Efficiency,  20. 
Solitude,  Value  of,  149. 
Spartan  Education,  14. 
Specialization,    Effectiveness 

of,  31. 

Standards  of  Measure,  224. 
State,  The— An  Educational 

Agency,  28. 
Stereopticon,  107. 
Struger,  227. 

Student,  The — His  Individu- 
ality, 179. 

His  Perspective,  161. 
His  Preparation,  173. 
Should     Keep      Study 
Schedule,  177. 


Should    Do    Systematic 
Study,  176. 

His  Viewpoint,  219. 
Study— Factors  of,  172. 

Improper    Methods    of, 
169. 

Motive  for,  172. 
Superficial  Study,  170. 
Supplementary  Material,  174. 
Syllogism,  127. 
Sympathy,  253. 


T. 

Teacher,  The — An  Architect, 
229. 

A  Citizen  of  the  Commu- 
nity, 80. 

A  Leader  in  the  Commu- 
nity, 51. 

His  Attitude,  81. 

His  Character,  73. 

Methods  of  His  Growth, 
78,  79. 

His  Individuality,  235. 

His  Personality,  81. 

His  Eewards,  87. 

His  Scholarship,  74. 

His  Three-Fold   Task, 
178. 

His  True  Worth,  85. 

His  Liberty,  232. 

Must  Find  Material,  162. 

Must  Know  His  Subject, 
167. 

Must     Observe     Princi- 
ples, 232. 

Should  Be  Just,  236. 

Should  Be  Unhampered, 
55. 

What  He  Should  Do  for 
His  Pupil,  150. 

Types  of,  82. 

Teaching — A  Profession,  not 
a  Trade,  81. 

Evil  Effects  of,  31. 

Testing  Results  of,  228. 
Team  Work,  270. 


298 


INDEX 


Temperature    of    Classroom, 

V. 

42. 
Thinking,  126,  145. 
Process  of,  126. 

Ventilation,  42. 
Vulcan,  94. 

Topic  Method,  214. 

W. 

Track  Work,  265. 

Waterloo,  262. 

Transportation     of     Pupils, 
281. 

Webster,  Daniel,  131. 
White,  Dr.  E.  E.,  238. 

Cost  of,  282. 
Benefits  of,  281. 

Whittier,  103. 
Words  Before  Ideas,  151. 

Y. 

U. 

Uranus.  136.  139. 

Youth,  Habit  Formation 

riod.  12. 

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